High in Alaska’s Brooks Range, streams that once ran so clear you could drink from them are now the color of rusty tea. The water looks hazy, smells metallic, and can stain rocks orange for miles.&nbsp;



Fish are struggling, insect life is smothered, and the change has arrived with startling speed. Scientists say the culprit isn’t industry. It’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thawing-permafrost-could-tip-earths-climate-balance/">thawing permafrost</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-frozen-ground-wakes-up">When frozen ground wakes up</h2>



For millennia, Arctic permafrost - permanently frozen soil - locked minerals in place. As the region warms, that icy seal is failing. Water and oxygen seep into freshly thawed ground and set off a chain reaction in sulfide-rich rocks (pyrite is a prime example).&nbsp;



The chemistry is textbook: sulfides oxidize, sulfuric acid forms, and the acid leaches metals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-was-lifes-first-essential-metal-and-shaped-early-evolution/">iron</a>, aluminum, and cadmium from surrounding rock. Those metals then flush into rivers and streams.



“This is what acid mine drainage looks like,” said Tim Lyons, a biogeochemist at the University of California, Riverside. “But here, there’s no mine. The permafrost is thawing and changing the chemistry of the landscape.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astounding-changes-in-water-chemistry">Astounding changes in water chemistry</h2>



A new study zeroes in on the Salmon River, a key waterway in the Brooks Range, documenting just how far the contamination has progressed.&nbsp;



But the authors stress the pattern isn’t isolated. Similar transformations are underway across dozens of Arctic watersheds that share the same mix of geology and thaw.



“I have worked and traveled in the Brooks Range since 1976, and the recent changes in landforms and water chemistry are truly astounding,” said David Cooper, a <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> research scientist and co-author of the study.



The alarm first sounded in 2019. Ecologist Paddy Sullivan of the <a href="https://www.alaska.edu/alaska/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska</a> was flying into the backcountry to study northward-shifting forests when his bush pilot mentioned the Salmon hadn’t cleared after snowmelt - it looked, he said, “like sewage.”&nbsp;



Sullivan’s field observations led to a collaboration with Lyons, <a href="https://www.alaskapacific.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska Pacific University</a>’s Roman Dial, and others to trace the cause and measure the ecological fallout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-metals-in-alaska-s-rivers">Toxic metals in Alaska's rivers</h2>



The team’s analysis confirmed a geochemical cascade. Permafrost thaw exposes sulfide-bearing rocks, oxidation generates acidity, and the resulting acid mobilizes a suite of metals.&nbsp;



In small doses many metals are harmless or even essential. But at higher concentrations they become toxic to aquatic life - and the Salmon River’s waters now exceed the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> thresholds for several metals detrimental to fish and invertebrates.



Iron is the most visible signal. As iron oxidizes, it forms fine, orange precipitates that cloud the water and coat the streambed. That haze blocks sunlight that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-algae-that-once-cooled-earth-are-now-disappearing/">algae</a> and aquatic plants need, and the sludge blankets the gravel and cobbles where insect larvae live and fish spawn. 



Cadmium is more insidious: it can accumulate in fish organs, potentially affecting predators from Dolly Varden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trout-living-in-polluted-rivers-evolved-to-tolerate-high-metal-levels-in-the-waters/">trout</a> and grayling to birds and bears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-food-chain">Ripple effects in the food chain</h2>



For now, the researchers say metal levels in edible fish tissue are not considered hazardous to humans. But indirect risks loom large.&nbsp;



Chum salmon - central to the diets and culture of many Indigenous communities - lay their eggs in clean, oxygenated gravel. When those spaces fill with fine sediment and metal precipitates, the oxygen drops and eggs can suffocate. 



Changes in insect communities ripple up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">food chain</a>, weakening the foundation that supports juvenile fish and the species that eat them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-irreversible-shift-in-alaska-s-rivers">Irreversible shift in Alaska's rivers</h2>



Unlike mine sites - where engineers can install liners, drains, or neutralizing systems - these rivers wind through remote, roadless country, and the sources of contamination are everywhere thaw has reached the right rock. There is no single pipe to plug, no settling pond to build.



“Wherever you have the right kind of rock and thawing permafrost, this process can start,” Lyons said. And once it does, it tends to keep going. The only true “off switch” would be for the permafrost to refreeze - an unlikely prospect in a warming climate.



“There’s no fixing this once it starts,” Lyons said. “It’s another irreversible shift driven by a warming planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-global-warming">Fingerprints of global warming</h2>



The experts hope their findings will help communities, land managers, and fisheries prepare - by expanding water quality monitoring, identifying vulnerable spawning grounds, planning alternative harvests if runs falter, and adapting management practices as conditions change.



The broader message is sobering. The Brooks Range is about as far from cities and smokestacks as you can get. Yet its rivers are wearing the unmistakable fingerprints of global warming.



“There are few places left on Earth as untouched as these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alaskas-rivers-are-rusting-and-the-changes-are-visible-from-space/">rivers</a>,” Lyons said. “But even here, far from cities and highways, the fingerprint of global warming is unmistakable. No place is spared.”



Rivers once known for their wild clarity are telling a new story - one where ancient ice, long trusted to keep the land’s chemistry in check, is finally letting go.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425644122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Taylor Rhoades



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Alaska's rivers are turning orange, and the changes are irreversible

High in Alaska’s Brooks Range, streams that once ran so clear you could drink from them are now the color of rusty tea. The water looks hazy, smells metallic, and can stain rocks orange for miles.&nbsp; Fish are struggling, insect life is smothered, and the change has arrived with startling speed. Scientists say the culprit isn’t industry. It’s thawing permafrost. When frozen ground wakes up For millennia, Arctic permafrost - permanently frozen soil - locked minerals in place. As the region warms, that icy seal is failing....

<div>Scientists at Imperial College London have discovered a feedback mechanism at the heart of photosynthesis that protects plants from damage by light.</div>
<div>

The researchers have discovered that the key enzyme in photosynthesis can tune its activity to avoid being damaged by light and oxygen.

Knowing how photosynthesis is regulated and protected could allow scientists to improve the process, potentially making agriculture and food production more efficient.

For example, understanding how this regulatory mechanism works could help researchers to identify the factors that are beneficial for plant growth and to define how to adjust these in order to optimise growth in controlled cultivation.

Photosystem II, the central enzyme in photosynthesis, uses solar energy to remove electrons from water. The electrons are used to fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, creating a form of carbon that constitutes the fuel and building blocks for life. Photosystem II changed the planet by putting most of the energy into the biosphere and all of the oxygen into the atmosphere.

When leaves close their pores to prevent water loss, this also prevents air exchange so that carbon dioxide cannot enter the system. As the carbon dioxide inside the leaf is used up, the electrons have nothing left to react with and so they build up.

Although carbon dioxide is not entering the system, light still is, generating excess electrons. As the electrons have nowhere to go, they instead engage in 'back-reactions' that form a 'killer molecule' called singlet oxygen. This killer molecule can damage the photosystem II enzyme.

Now, by using a technique called spectro-electrochemistry, researchers have discovered a mechanism that protects the enzyme from this damage. The trapped electrons trigger the release of a bicarbonate molecule from the enzyme, which was previously thought to be constantly bound to it.

The new study, published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows that this bicarbonate release not only slows down the water-splitting reaction but crucially also protects the enzyme from light damage due to the harmful back-reactions.

Bicarbonate is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water, so its concentration is related to the amount of carbon dioxide in the local environment. As well as low carbon dioxide levels causing electrons to build up and trigger the release of bicarbonate, the study also suggests the possibility that the level of carbon dioxide itself in the local leaf environment could impact on the bicarbonate binding.

"This is such an intuitive feedback mechanism at the heart of biology that I think it will go into school textbooks," said lead author, Professor Bill Rutherford FRS from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial.

"Now that we understand this new mechanism in the lab, the next step is to define when it kicks in out there in the field - not to mention the forest, greenhouse, plant pot, sea, lake and pond."

Dr Andrea Fantuzzi, co-lead author also from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial, added: "The role of bicarbonate has long been a mystery. Otto Warburg, Nobel laureate, friend of Einstein and one of the twentieth century's leading biochemists, puzzled over this problem in the 1950s.

"Now the mystery is solved and a new regulatory mechanism defined. Not only is the question solved, but it could have real implications for understanding limitations to plant growth."


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Imperial College London</a>
<div></div>

Plants have a mechanism that protects them from damage by light

Scientists at Imperial College London have discovered a feedback mechanism...

In 2010, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano -- its crater covered by glacier ice -- erupted, spewing clouds of ash that led to delays in flights to and from Europe. Now Katla, another Iceland volcano, is rumbling. To mark Earth Science Week, Oct. 9-15, 2016, the National Science Foundation (NSF) spoke with geologist Benjamin Edwards of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pa., and Sonia Esperanca, a volcanologist and program director in NSF's Division of Earth Sciences, about Eyjafjallajökull and other volcanoes hidden under glaciers. NSF's Division of Earth Sciences supports Edwards' research.

Q: How often do volcanoes covered by snow and ice erupt?

Esperanca: Volcanoes at high latitudes on continents are often covered by ice and snow, sometimes through the summer months. Volcanologists are always concerned when a volcano beneath a glacier becomes active. When scalding-hot lava melts vast amounts of ice and snow, for example, severe mudflows may result.

Q: Is Eyjafjallajökull Iceland's only glacier-covered volcano?

Edwards: Iceland has many glacierized volcanoes [volcanoes at least partly covered by ice], including the recent earthquake-rattled Katla, Grímsvötn, Bárðarbunga and others. However, even Iceland's ice-free volcanoes like Hekla can have ash-rich eruptions. The key to knowing where ash will go during an Iceland eruption is to follow the Northern Hemisphere jet streams. Sometimes, they flow across Iceland and head into the Arctic, where much of the ash falls into the ocean; at other times they can quickly whisk the ash into northern Europe.

Q: Did lava from the 2010 eruption flow beneath the glacier's ice?

Edwards: Yes, a lava flow traveled down the Gigjökull glacier, which covers Eyjafjallajökull. In part, the lava followed pathways left by floods that melted ice at the beginning of the eruption. Other lava flows twisted and turned along pre-existing drainage tunnels beneath the ice. We found lava in these passageways when we first visited the eruption site in 2011. Since then, the roofs of most of these ice tunnels have completely melted.

[caption id="attachment_88956" align="alignleft" width="150"]<img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-88956" src="http://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Gigjökull-glacier_1big_NSF-150x150.jpg" alt="Gigjökull glacier" width="150" height="150" /> Gigjökull glacier[/caption]

Q: Is this the first time under-ice lava has been observed?

Edwards: Although this isn't the first time lava has traveled beneath ice at a modern-day volcanic eruption, these ice-lava deposits are probably the best documented. Our team made several flights over the eruption site during and immediately afterward. While the lava was flowing, however, the area was too dangerous for close observations.

Q: Does under-ice lava create special hazards for people living downstream?

Edwards: It can. Our work shows that ice-melting increased from lava traveling beneath the glacier. The rate of melting depends on how fast the lava is flowing and how much ice comes into contact with it, or is close enough to be affected by the lava's heat. Explosive glaciovolcanic eruptions usually produce the most rapid ice-melting.

Q: The process of lava flowing under ice must create beautiful, if ephemeral, structures in a glacier. Did you see tunnels, arches and other formations?

Edwards: We observed lots of arches in the ice in 2011, but these were mostly gone by 2012. Overall the response of Gigjökull glacier to the eruption was mixed. A canyon carved in the upper part of the glacier had "healed itself" by 2012. However, the damage to the lower part of the glacier seems to have been severe enough that, coupled with melting due to climate change, the end of the glacier lost about half its width. It doesn't seem like it's going to recover, based on views in 2014.

Q: Does ice "cool" burning-hot lava?

Edwards: Theoretically, lava can melt about five to ten times its own volume of ice -- if all the heat from the lava, which could be 1,200 degrees Celsius [about 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit], melts the ice. But nature generally is not that efficient, in part because meltwater can quickly carry heat away from the lava-ice interface. Also, because about 20 percent of the potential heat released by the lava comes from crystals that grow inside the lava, quickly turning it into glass, some of the potential heat is lost.

Q: Can new snowfall "rebuild" a glacier that has lost ice to an eruption?

Edwards: Yes, depending on how badly the ice was damaged and how much snow falls. At Veniaminof Volcano in Alaska, lava flows come out of a cone that sits above a caldera filled with ice. The flows melt into the ice for 30 to 50 meters [98 to 164 feet], but after one or two years are again covered by ice and snow. At Gigjökull in Iceland, part of the glacier seemed to recover very quickly, and other parts seem to have been damaged beyond repair.

Q: Is there anywhere else on Earth such glacier-volcanoes exist and have erupted, or might in the near future?

Edwards: Our work shows that at least 180 volcanoes around the globe have glaciers that have been mapped to within 1 kilometer [about two-thirds of a mile] of a known volcanic vent. More than 400 may be within striking distance: a 5 kilometer [3.1 mile] radius of damage from volcanic ash or lava flows.

Q: Can Iceland residents and visitors get close enough to the Eyjafjallajökull glacier-volcano to see the effects of the 2010 eruption?

Edwards: Yes, anyone can take a bus or a four-wheel drive vehicle to the base of the Gigjökull glacier, with its now-empty lake basin that once contained a glacial lagoon. If you look carefully, you can just see the end of the lava flow.

Eyjafjallajökull volcano: The dangerous volcano beneath a glacier

In 2010, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano -- its crater covered by...

Although Chapel Hill is thousands of miles away from the ecological paradise of the Galapagos Islands, researchers at UNC Chapel Hill have been working closely with colleagues at the University of San Francisco de Quito Galapagos Science Center to develop strategies to maintain the World Heritage site for future generations. Their work aims to help the Ecuadorian Government make a plan that will balance economic development and resource conservation on the islands, which are in the Pacific Ocean, 1000 kilometers from the mainland.

The Galapagos Islands are home to renowned sea turtles, giant tortoises, marine iguanas and unique landscapes. These natural features drew 225,000 tourists in 2015. As a result, the local population has grown to approximately 30,000 people who have migrated in search of higher wages in the booming ecotourism industry. This growth could potentially strain the delicate environment of the islands.

This prompted the Ecuadorian government to recruit Steve Walsh, director of the UNC-Chapel Hill center, and Carlos Mena, director of the Galapagos Science Center to build a model to predict the of number of tourists and residents that the islands could accommodate before the islands are damaged. The findings were published in a paper in the Oct. 10th issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Their work combined data relating to demographics, tourism, the economy and the environment to predict how much growth the islands can sustain by 2033. Their models account for factors such as the Galapagos society, human-environment interactions and how people function within both human and natural systems. It also contains data extending well beyond the islands themselves. Walsh refined the model to reflect social and ecological factors worldwide. "Our modeling is an attempt to help guide wise stewardship of a special place, and I think the models give us the opportunity to create a computerized natural laboratory to test scenarios of change," he said. "As we build these models, the notion is to understand the Galapagos and to export them to similarly challenged places around the globe."

Walsh praised the Ecuadorian government for their foresight in conducting this work: "The Ecuadorian government and the Galapagos National Park are asking the exact right questions," said Walsh, the Lyle V. Jones Distinguished Professor of Geography at UNC-Chapel Hill. "No one wants a boom and bust situation. We want wise, managed growth within the concept of sustainability." This study's aim was to help governments make more informed decisions about the sustainability of island ecosystems and future threats. "We see our models as tools for decision-makers that can help them understand and evaluate the value of special places and the risks they're willing to tolerate," said Walsh. "Our models allow decision- makers to look at scenarios of change and to choose what best matches their management goals and their sense of value and risk."

Although all computer modeling studies have some degree of uncertainty, Walsh notes that this study is based on real data and quantifiable relationships between the variables. "We're not simulating data. We're not making up data. We're not using theory to guide it," said Walsh. "It's real data and real functions, and that improves the performance of the models."

This study was conducted at the Galapagos Science Center, which was founded in 2011 as a joint effort between UNC-Chapel Hill and the Universidad San Francisco de Quito. The facility is located on San Cristobal Island and has the goal of promoting science and education to help protect the fragile island ecosystems and enhance the lives of their inhabitants.

The center houses faculty and students from both UNC and USFQ. There are four laboratories focusing on terrestrial ecology, marine ecology, geospatial technologies, microbiology and genetics. Researchers have access to permanent staff, field measurement equipment and several permitted projects that extend across the sciences, the Galapagos initatives focus on population, health and environment through a focus on understanding the complex interactions among the social, terrestrial and marine systems of the Galapagos islands.

---

Author:

Earth.com Staff

The Galapagos Islands are struggling from the growth of ecotourism

Although Chapel Hill is thousands of miles away from the...

Today's supercapacitors, energy storage devices capable of quickly delivering a large charge, feature carbon-derived components -- the production of which requires harsh chemicals and large amounts of energy.

Recently, scientists at MIT built a supercapacitor without carbon. In place of carbon, scientists deployed metal-organic frameworks, or MOFs.

"We've found an entirely new class of materials for supercapacitors," Mircea Dincă, an MIT associate professor of chemistry, told MIT News.

MOFs are porous, sponge-like materials with a lot of surface area -- an important quality for supercapacitor materials. Unfortunately, MOFs aren't all that conductive, another important quality.

"One of our long-term goals was to make these materials electrically conductive," Dincă said.

It's a goal some scientists thought was impossible.

Though MOFs don't conduct electricity very well, they do conduct ions, positively charged atoms and molecules. Ion conductivity is a key component of high-functioning electrode. The quality gave researchers hope that an MOF could be used in supercapacitors.

Through trial and error, researchers were able to develop an electrically conductive MOF using nickel.

When researchers made a supercapacitor using the novel material, they matched the performance of today's best carbon-based supercapacitors. In some respects -- like its ability to withstand many charge-discharge cycles -- it outperformed commercial supercapacitors.

Though the production of MOFs currently requires the use of rather expensive materials, the production process involves fewer toxic chemicals.

Researchers hope their findings -- detailed in the journal Nature Materials -- are just the beginning. The MOF used by Dincă and his research partners boasts one of the smaller surface areas of the class. New and improved MOFs could offer even greater capacity.

---

Credit: MIT/UPI

Scientists create carbon-free supercapacitor

Today's supercapacitors, energy storage devices capable of quickly delivering a...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">Small but powerful Typhoon Songda continued moving to the northeast and over the open ocean of the Northwestern Pacific Ocean when NASA's Terra satellite passed overhead and saw its cloud-filled eye.</div>
Tropical storm Songda, the twenty-third tropical cyclone of the northwestern Pacific Ocean formed on Oct. 9. At 5 a.m. EDT (0900 UTC) Songda was located about 488 miles east-southeast of Iwo To island, Japan.

On Oct. 10 at 8:45 p.m. EDT (Oct. 11 at 00:45 UTC) The Moderate Resolution Imaging= Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument aboard NASA's Terra satellite captured a visible-light image of Songda. MODIS saw powerful thunderstorms circling Typhoon Songda's 20 nautical mile wide, cloud-filled eye. Stronger storms appeared a brighter white than those storms surrounding the center.

On Oct. 11 at 11 a.m. EDT (1500 UTC) Typhoon Songda's maximum sustained winds were near 100 knots (115.1 mph/185.2 kph). Hurricane-force winds were occurring up to 30 miles from the center, while tropical storm force winds extended just 90 miles. Sondga is a compact storm.

It was located far from land areas and about 538 nautical miles southeast of Yokosaka, Japan near 29.3 degrees north latitude and 147.6 degrees east longitude. Songda was moving to the northeast at (11.5 mph/18.5 kph).

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center forecast noted increasing vertical wind shear and cooling sea surface temperatures will rapidly erode the system. Songda is forecast to begin weakening and become extra-tropical over the next two days.


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="http://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank">NASA</a>
<div></div>

Typhoon Songda moves in the open Pacific Ocean

Small but powerful Typhoon Songda continued moving to the northeast...

New York City can expect 9-foot floods, as intense as that produced by 2012's Superstorm Sandy, at least three times more frequently over the next century - and possibly as much as 17 times more frequently, according to a paper published today by scientists at Rutgers University, Princeton University and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

The paper was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The study is based on a combination of historical data and computer model projections performed by Ning Lin of Princeton University, Benjamin Horton and Robert Kopp of Rutgers University, and Jeff Donnelly of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The historical data consist of tidal gauge records taken from New York City, going back to 1856, and geological records from the same area going back two millennia. The model projections consist of Kopp's work on future sea-level models; Lin's work on future storm intensity; and the work of Horton, Kopp and Donnelly on historical sea levels and storm surges.

The scientists ask the question: How frequent will floods like that produced by Sandy be in the future? Earlier research led by Andra Reed, now a postdoctoral scholar at Rutgers, had shown a 20-fold increase in the frequency of extreme floods, primarily as a result of sea-level rise, between the historic period from 850 to 1850 and the late 20th century.

The historic sea-level rise was largely due to natural effects, like the slow sinking of the land in the mid-Atlantic region in response to the end of the last ice age; but over the late 20th century, human-caused climate change came to dominate sea-level rise.

In the paper published today, the authors report that floods as intense as Sandy's would have occurred about once every 400 years on average under the sea-level rise conditions of the year 2000, but that over the 21st century are expected to be about four times more probable due to an acceleration in the rate of sea-level rise.

"The grand answer is that things are going to get worse by 2100," says Horton, who is professor of Marine and Coastal Sciences in the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences. "If nothing changes with hurricanes, sea-level rise alone will increase the frequency of Sandy-like events by 2100."

But the size, intensity, and tracks of hurricanes may change. In the paper, Princeton's Lin combined historical climate data and modeling of future climate conditions and storm surges. She found that these changes may lead to a more modest three-fold increase in flood probability, but may also break badly against New York City, making Sandy's flood 17 times more probable.

"As we refine climate and hurricane dynamic models, we will have more accurate predictions that will allow planners to better design flood mitigation strategies," said Lin, the study's lead author.

The study built upon past work by Kopp, professor of earth and planetary sciences in the School of Arts and Sciences, estimating sea levels over the 21st century. "We ask, 'What is likely?' and 'What are the extremes?'" Kopp said. "We take into account factors that cause local sea level to vary from global sea level. And we've shown, through geological investigations, that our projections are consistent with the assumption that temperature and sea level will be related in the future as they have been over the past two thousand years."

Projections are not predictions and, Horton says, the spread between what's "likely" and "extreme" is an indication of the complexity of future projection. "Things are only going to get worse by 2100," Horton says. "It's just a question of how much worse it will get. There is no happy scenario."

---

Credit: <a href="http://www.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rutgers University</a>

Study: New York City will frequently be under water in the next century

New York City can expect 9-foot floods, as intense as...

<div>Human-caused climate change has nearly doubled the amount of land burned in western U.S. forest fires over the past three decades, according to a new study by researchers at the University of Idaho and Columbia University.</div>
The researchers estimate that human-caused climate change caused an additional 16,000 square miles of western forest lands to burn between 1984 and 2015. That's about the size of the Bitterroot, Clearwater, Kootenai, Panhandle and Nez Perce National forests combined, or more than 30 times the size of the city of Los Angeles.

"We're no longer waiting for human-caused climate change to leave its fingerprint on wildfire across the western U.S. It's already here," said John Abatzoglou, the study's lead author and an associate professor of geography in UI's College of Science. "Over the last several decades we've seen longer fire seasons, larger fires and more area burned -- and those observations led us to ask, 'Why?' What we found was that human-caused climate change played a resounding role in observed increases in forest fire activity."

The study, which will be published in the Oct. 10 online early edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, is the first to quantify the degree to which human-caused climate change has increased wildfire activity in western U.S. forests. The study examined forested regions of the lower 48 states from the Rockies to the Pacific.

"Knowing that human-caused warming is responsible for approximately half of the western U.S. forest fire area in the past few decades, and understanding that this effect is becoming increasingly dominant, helps us better anticipate continued changes in forest fire activity in the coming decades," said co-author Park Williams, a bioclimatologist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

"This knowledge will allow us to make more educated fire and land management decisions."

The United States has seen dramatic fire seasons in recent years. In 2015, 10.1 million acres burned across the country -- the largest since the National Interagency Fire Center began documenting wildland fire area in 1983. Federal firefighting costs for the 2015 fire season hit a record-high $2.1 billion.

The uptick in fire activity over the past decade has led to some calling recent wildfire seasons the "new normal." Abatzoglou and Williams goal was to parse out how much of the observed increase in the extent of forest fires was due to natural climate variability and other factors, and how much was rooted in human-caused climate change. They chose to focus on forest fires, since grassland fires respond differently to climate variability.

Abatzoglou likened the many factors that lead to forest fires to instruments in an orchestra: When any instrument plays louder, the volume of the whole orchestra increases. His and Williams' research finds that both human-caused climate change and natural variability have been playing with increasing volume in recent decades, leading to record-breaking fire seasons.

The history of fire suppression and forest management practices in parts of the West has also played an important role in the increase. Fewer fires have led to overgrowth in many forests, so there is now more fuel available to burn when conditions get dry.

"The legacy of fire suppression has probably amplified the effect of climate change on forest fire. Opposite to how climate change would have zero effect on forest fire activity if there was zero fuel to burn, climate change probably has had an amplified effect of forest fire activity due to an artificially high number of trees in many forested areas due to past fire suppression," Williams said.

Increased temperature and reduced relative humidity facilitate fire activity by drying out timber. Such conditions allow fires to start and spread and make them more difficult to suppress.

"Wildfire is a function of several processes, some natural and some human. But what we know is on a year-to-year basis, warm, dry summers enable large fire seasons," Abatzoglou said. "There is a remarkable relationship between the extent of forested area burned and fuel dryness that allows us to implicate climate as the preeminent driver of annual variability in forest fire over the past three decades."

Abatzoglou and Williams complied data from eight measures of aridity, or dryness, in western U.S. forests. They then used climate model experiments to identify how human-caused climate change influenced these aridity measures.

They found that spring and summer temperatures warmed by 2 to 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 1.5 degrees Celsius) since 1950, which is in agreement with the warming that climate models attribute to human-caused climate change. This warming led to significant drying within western U.S. forests, accounting for approximately 55 percent of the documented increases in forest aridity from 1979 to 2015. The remaining 45 percent was due to natural climate variations that caused reductions in humidity and precipitation in some regions.

This influence has been particularly notable since the turn of the century: Abatzoglou and Williams estimate that since 2000, human-caused climate change led to a 75-percent increase in the extent of forested lands with elevated aridity and contributed about nine additional days per year with exceptionally dry fuels and high fire potential.

While human-caused climate change and natural climate variability have conspired to increase aridity in recent decades, natural variability could possibly revert and reduce aridity in coming decades, Abatzoglou said. However, unmitigated human-caused climate change will likely have a growing effect on fire seasons -- like the drum section of the orchestra growing louder and louder.

"Is this the new normal? I'd say no, but we're heading there," Abatzoglou said. "We expect that the effects of human-caused climate change will intensify over the next several decades. So long as there are trees in our forests, climate change will continue to set the table for large fire seasons."

"The impact of anthropogenic climate change on wildfire across western US forests" is available from PNAS through EurekAlert.
###
Credit: <a href="http://www.uidaho.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Idaho</a>

About UI

The University of Idaho, home of the Vandals, is one of only 72 land-grant research universities in the United States. From its residential campus in Moscow, UI serves the state of Idaho through educational centers in Coeur d'Alene, Boise, Idaho Falls and Twin Falls, and Extension offices in 42 counties. Home to more than 11,000 students statewide, UI is a leader in student-centered learning and excels at interdisciplinary research, service to businesses and communities, and in advancing diversity, citizenship and global outreach. UI competes in the Big Sky Conference and Sun Belt Conference. Learn more: <a href="http://www.uidaho.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">http://www.uidaho.edu</a>.

&nbsp;

US forest fires have doubled from human-caused climate change

Human-caused climate change has nearly doubled the amount of land...

When Christa Savva returned to the Sandy Shoes Beach Resort a day after Hurricane Matthew brushed by Melbourne Beach, Florida, she looked at the beach in front of the pink-flamingo-colored hotel and noticed half the sand dunes had disappeared.
Savva guesses three-quarters of the missing dunes washed into the ocean and the remaining quarter scattered onto the resort's beachfront property, which was undamaged by the hurricane.
"I was like, 'Oh, my goodness!'" Savva, a property manager for the Space-Age-era hotel, said Sunday. "It's crazy to have the dunes gone and all you see is empty space."
The sand dunes on Florida's beaches are the equivalent of tourism gold, and its disappearance over time threatens the state's No. 1 industry. While Hurricane Matthew didn't ravage Florida's coast as a series of storms did a dozen years ago, it collapsed dunes, washing away sand that protected buildings and roads during storms, and will likely require the spending of millions of dollars on beach restoration projects.
In Jacksonville Beach, the top of the dunes collapsed onto the lower part of the dunes, creating 10-foot high cliffs of sand, rather than the usual gentle slopes of the dunes.
Federal, state and local officials respond to beach erosion by depositing new sand in areas where it has disappeared, and the sand dunes act as barriers to infrastructure. Before these projects took off three decades ago, sea walls were often the only thing that stood between water, winds and buildings during storms.
"The good news is a lot of people don't realize our beaches are engineered. It looks natural, but we construct the sand so it's sacrificed during hurricanes and protects roads and structures and potentially human lives," said Jackie Keiser, a Jacksonville-area official with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
While a statewide evaluation of beach erosion has yet to be completed, individual Atlantic-coast counties from south of the Space Coast up to the Georgia border were assessing the lost sand.
A $13.5 million project to replenish Jacksonville-area beaches with 650,000 thousand cubic yards of sand over seven miles was underway before Hurricane Matthew. Keiser said she is certain that same amount of sand was lost from the hurricane and the amount of sand needed for the project will likely double.
Virginia Barker, the natural resources director for Brevard County, the area of Florida often referred to as the Space Coast, said the erosion from Hurricane Matthew appears to be more in the category of Hurricane Sandy in 2012 than a devastating series of hurricanes of 2004 and 2005. After Sandy, 2.4 million cubic yards of sand were needed to replenish 14 miles of Brevard County's shoreline. The replenishment was far smaller than what was required after Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne made landfall just south of the Space Coast a dozen years ago.
"This is world-famous Cocoa Beach. People come here for the sandy experience," Barker said. "It's tremendously important to our economy. The alternative is to allow erosion and let the sea go up and there will be no sandy beach."
In Georgia, it's too early to tell the extent of beach erosion, but water did get past huge boulders placed along the shore to buffer properties and stop erosion, said Megan Desrosiers, CEO of One Hundred Miles, a Georgia coastal advocacy group.
"The thing about Georgia is, we haven't had a storm like this since the 1880s so it's hard to know how to prepare when no one remembers the last time there was a storm like this," Desrosiers said. "We don't have experience with this type of storm on the Georgia coast, but Matthew was a perfect example of what we will see more of in the future."
Before Hurricane Matthew, more than half of Florida's 663 miles of beaches were considered critically eroded by the state Department of Environmental Protection. The agency defines "critical erosion" as the disappearance of beach or dune to a degree that it affects the environment, development or recreational activities. About half of Florida's 411 miles of beaches deemed to have "critical erosion" are part of a beach replenishment program.
Before the storm, Brevard County had 41 miles of critical erosion, the area around Daytona Beach had almost 20 miles of beach erosion, the area around St. Augustine had almost 14 miles of critical erosion and the area around Jacksonville had more than 10 miles.
In Melbourne Beach, now that half of the dunes are gone in front of the Sandy Shoes, the high tide can lap up to the steps that lead to the hotel's wooden deck overlooking the beach.
"There's still a beach, and everything ... but it's just a lot flatter," Savva said. "High tide is something you're going to have to watch out for now."
---
Follow Mike Schneider on Twitter: <a href="http://twitter.com/mikeschneiderap">http://twitter.com/mikeschneiderap</a> . His work can be found at <a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/content/Mike-Schneider">http://bigstory.ap.org/content/Mike-Schneider</a> .
© 2016 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

Hurricane Matthew destroys protective sand dunes along Florida coast

When Christa Savva returned to the Sandy Shoes Beach Resort...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">Amid efforts to restore native oyster populations on the West Coast, how are oysters expected to fair under climate change in the decades and centuries to come? Not too badly, according to a study from the University of California, Davis. But there's a big "if" involved.</div>
In the study, published Oct. 10 in the journal Functional Ecology, researchers investigated oysters in the lab and in oyster beds at California's Tomales Bay and San Francisco Bay. They found that certain components of climate change may actually benefit oysters in California in the long term, provided they have enough food, because they tend to grow faster at warmer temperatures. Good news? Not so fast.

Meet oyster drills, two species of predatory snails introduced to California from the East Coast and Asia. While oysters are more tolerant of extreme temperatures and low salinity, such as can occur during floods, warming over the next few decades first benefits the oyster drills, increasing the rate at which they eat the oysters.

Oyster Drills 'The Worst Way To Go'

"To me, it's the worst way to go," said lead author Brian Cheng, a doctoral candidate at UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory at the time of the study and currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center. "Imagine you're an oyster. You have a suit of armor you wear and that you cannot move. Imagine there was something that could crawl onto you and begin blasting away on your shell of armor. Imagine they could secrete acid and use a file-like tongue to bore tiny little holes into the shell. Then they insert their tongue and tear away bits of flesh, eating you alive. Once the hole is made, the oyster is basically done."

The silver lining is that oyster drills are relatively easy to find, identify and remove. Cheng said this makes them a good candidate for eradication.

The Last Native Oyster

Oysters are an iconic California seafood, and while the Olympia oyster is the only native oyster on the West Coast, it is no longer fished in California. Most oysters slurped down by consumers are farmed Pacific oysters native to Asia.

But wild oysters hold benefits beyond the gustatory: Their complex shell formations harbor other animals and plants, serving as habitat. Researchers are also investigating how they may help buffer the effects of sea level rise, contributing to a "living shoreline" that reduces rates of erosion.

In addition to holding management implications for native oyster populations, the study is also relevant for oyster farms, though they were not the focus of the research. Oyster farmers are well aware of oyster drill issues, Cheng said, but the study points out that the drill problem is expected to get worse before it gets better, and that management will be key to the survival of both oysters and oyster farms.

"Oysters are expected to do better if provided with unlimited resources, but we don't know if that will be the case in the wild under climate change," Cheng said. "So while there's evidence they could do better, by no means is it a slam dunk. Other aspects of climate change, such as ocean acidification, may continue to be detrimental to oysters."
###
The study was funded by the National Estuarine Research Reserve, National Park Service, UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory, and National Science Foundation.

</div>

Native oysters may thrive in climate change

Amid efforts to restore native oyster populations on the West...

<div>While current efforts to curtail agricultural runoff will improve the health of Lake Erie, much more work will be needed to protect the streams that feed the lake, new research shows.</div>
A study of the western Lake Erie watershed found that increased conservation efforts will be needed on most of the farms in the watershed in order to protect arterial streams in Ohio, Michigan and Indiana.

The project, led by researchers at The Ohio State University and The Nature Conservancy, used computer modeling to get a handle on the impact of various conservation efforts in the western Lake Erie watershed. The area includes about 5.5 million acres of cropland, making it the most intensely farmed watershed feeding into the Great Lakes.

In light of harmful algal blooms, conservationists, scientists and farmers are looking for ways to maintain robust agricultural production without causing damage to the surrounding ecosystem, said Stuart Ludsin, an associate professor of evolution, ecology and organismal biology and co-director of Ohio State's Aquatic Ecology Laboratory.

The bulk of that work has focused on reducing phosphorous in western Lake Erie by 40 percent. While that's an important goal, it doesn't address the harms from sediment and nitrogen runoff, Ludsin said. Nor does it focus on the health of streams throughout the watershed - waters that supply drinking water, provide habitat for fish and serve as a playground for anglers, kayakers and others, he said.

"Until our study, nobody has taken a hard look at how agricultural conservation practices aimed at protecting Lake Erie could influence the health of streams in the watershed. We're asking what happens to water quality and fish communities if we implement conservation measures," Ludsin said.

"It's important to not just focus on the lake, but to consider the arteries that feed it. Our streams are as degraded as the lake."

The study shows that both the streams and the lake will benefit if appropriate conservation efforts are implemented, he said. Conservation efforts include erosion control and nutrient management, including being selective about how much fertilizer is used and when it is applied.

The report includes predictions about the effects of a variety of conservation scenarios to give stakeholders information on which to base plans going forward, he said.

"Our models tell us what sort of difference it would make to streams if we reduced the amount of nutrients and sediments in agricultural runoff and leaching by 20, 40, or 60 percent," Ludsin said.

In embarking on this work, Ohio State and partners including The Nature Conservancy, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ohio Sea Grant and Texas A&amp;M University aimed to provide information that could optimize efforts to protect waters and the species that live within them from runoff, while maintaining the profitability of farms.

They also sought to determine what kind of financial investment will be necessary to achieve meaningful environmental benefits, both under current environmental conditions and taking into account the pressure of continued climate change.

The results highlight the role various farming practices could have in improving water quality in streams and in Lake Erie. To view the full report, go to <a href="http://www.lakeerieceap.com/" target="_blank">http://www.lakeerieceap.com</a>.

Agricultural runoff threatens fish in the majority of the western Lake Erie watershed, Ludsin said.

Analysis of state monitoring data has shown that current conservation efforts have improved fish community health, but more work is needed to control erosion and fertilizer runoff into streams, said Conor Keitzer, a former Ohio State postdoctoral fellow who is now an assistant professor at Tusculum College in Tennessee.

Through computer modeling, researchers found that stream health could improve with a modest increase in conservation efforts at farms in about 8 percent of the watershed. "But there's going to still be a huge part of the watershed where water quality is a concern," Keitzer said.

Nearly half of the farmland in the watershed would need improved runoff controls for widespread benefit for the fish that live in the streams, the analysis found. The research team used available observational data from the streams and fish populations to create a watershed-wide model to estimate how water quality impacts fish populations.

"We can make a big difference, but it's going to take a lot of work and a lot of cooperation," said Keitzer.

Erosion control and nutrient management in high- and moderate-need acres identified in the report could mean cleaner water and healthier fish communities in about half the streams in the watershed, they found.

This assessment points to the need to look not only at phosphorous, but at nitrogen and sediment in streams, the researchers said. Each of the three threatens fish in those waters.

Based on established thresholds for North American streams, the researchers found that a majority of streams in the watershed had phosphorous and nitrogen concentrations that could lead to algal blooms, which compromise drinking water and kill fish. Almost half of the streams had sediment concentrations that could harm fish.

"Results of our project clearly show that we can achieve significant improvements in both the streams and the lake, but it is going to take a lot of work," said Scott Sowa, director of science at The Nature Conservancy in Michigan.

"It also shows that we can't just focus on a single problem or stressor, like phosphorous. We are dealing with a multifaceted problem that will require a variety of practices and innovative collaborative solutions," he said.

The researchers estimated it could cost nearly $150 million annually to treat farm acres deemed "high and moderate needs" based on their predicted contribution of nutrients and sediments to surface waters. Keitzer stressed that the figure was a rough estimate, but one that illustrates that large investments are needed.

"Continued interaction among agencies and stakeholders regarding appropriate management and conservation targets in relation to monetary costs seems prudent," the researchers wrote in the report.

They also pointed out that farms aren't the sole contributor to problems in the lake and the watershed. Municipal waste systems, rural septic systems and point sources also contribute.

"I think people forget the importance of these streams, to both fish and people. This project will help us identify win-win solutions that benefit Lake Erie and the thousands of stream miles in its watershed," Keitzer said.
###
The research was supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service.

&nbsp;

Protecting Lake Erie from agricultural runoff

While current efforts to curtail agricultural runoff will improve the...

Washington lawmakers have tried and failed in recent years to make polluters pay for their carbon emissions to fight climate change. Now, voters will get to decide.
An initiative on the November ballot asks voters whether the state should impose the nation's first direct carbon tax on the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline.
Sponsors say residents have a moral responsibility to curb greenhouse gas emissions, and a carbon tax is the best way to do it. The tax encourages businesses to conserve or switch to clean energy by making fossil fuels more expensive, and it makes the tax system fairer by using the revenues to reduce other taxes, they say.
Businesses say the tax will drive up fuel and energy costs and put Washington companies at a competitive disadvantage.
And in a move that has bewildered some, major environmental and other groups - including those that backed Gov. Jay Inslee's proposal last year to cap emissions and make carbon polluters pay - oppose the initiative. They say it takes the wrong approach.
Yoram Bauman, an economist who founded Carbon Washington, the grassroots group that gathered more than 350,000 signatures to qualify Initiative 732, defended it as great climate and tax policy.
"It does almost everything right for Washington," he said.
Audubon Washington supports it.
"Our members came down on the side of urgency. We don't have time to wait," said Gail Gatton, the group's executive director. "Climate change is happening, and this is our best available option right now to protect birds."
But the Sierra Club, Washington Environmental Council and the advocacy group Front and Centered say the initiative is the wrong carbon-pricing approach and will hurt the state's revenues. Whereas Inslee's pollution fee would have raised money for education, transportation, clean energy and programs to help disadvantaged communities affected by climate change, Initiative 732 provides no such investments, critics say.
"It's not a path that makes sense for our communities," said Rich Stolz, executive director of OneAmerica, which works on social justice issues. Stolz said the initiative ignores climate justice and lacks input from communities of color.
Stolz's group is part of a coalition that worked on an alternative carbon-pricing measure. Last-minute talks between that coalition and I-732 supporters to collaborate on one ballot measure fizzled last year.
The initiative is designed to be revenue neutral, meaning the tax revenue increase from fossil fuels would be mostly offset by decreases in other taxes. In this case, revenues would be returned to people and businesses by cutting the state sales tax by one point, virtually eliminating business taxes for manufacturers and providing rebates for working families, sponsors say.
A state analysis, however, estimates the measure could cost the state about $800 million in lost revenues over the first six fiscal years. Initiative sponsors dispute the state's analysis, saying it double-counted the rebates in the first year.
The carbon tax is modeled after one in the nearby Canadian province of British Columbia. California has a cap-and-trade program, which limits emissions and allows carbon polluters to buy and trade pollution credits. If approved, Washington's carbon tax starts at $15 a ton of carbon emissions in July, goes up to $25 the next year and incrementally increases afterward.
The Washington State Tree Fruit Association, which represents growers, packers and marketers, is among those opposed.
It takes a lot of fuel to grow and transport produce, and the tax will be paid by those in the state, not competitors outside it, said Jon Devaney, the group's president.
"Raising food prices in Washington state will make us less competitive compared to others," he said.
Initiative sponsors say a $25 carbon tax would raise the price of gasoline by about 25 cents per gallon and the price of coal-fired electricity by about 2.5 cents per kilowatt-hour. They say power plants and fuel suppliers likely will pass those costs on to consumers, but that consumers will see price reductions in other things they buy because the sales tax is cut. The tax wouldn't apply to electricity from renewables like hydro, wind or solar power.
The campaign has raised $1.2 million from nearly 1,200 unique donors; more than half of those total contributions are under $200.
The No on 732 campaign sponsored by the Association of Washington Business has raised $300,000 to oppose the tax.
© 2016 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

Washington state will vote on America's first carbon tax in November

Washington lawmakers have tried and failed in recent years to...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">Cheap shale gas produced by fracking has driven the decline in coal production in the United States during the last decade, researchers at the Great Lakes Energy Institute at Case Western Reserve University have found.</div>
Power plants, which use 93 percent of the coal produced nationally, have been operating under the same EPA regulations signed into law by President George H.W. Bush in 1990. Proposed new rules since then have all been challenged in court and not implemented until June 2016, when the EPA's restrictions on mercury and other toxic emissions were approved by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Consumption of coal continued to grow under those 1990-era EPA rules until 2008, and then went into steady decline, dropping by 23 percent from 2008 thru 2015.

The data show the drop in those years to be correlated with the shale revolution, as natural gas production increased by a factor of more than 10 and its price dropped in half, the researchers say. And, due to the continuing--and in some cases accelerating--technological and economic advantages of gas over coal, the decline in coal is expected to continue at least decades into the future.

Their study is published in The Electricity Journal.

"Some people attribute the decline in coal-generated electricity to the EPA's air-quality rules, even calling it 'Obama's war on coal,'" said Mingguo Hong, associate professor of electrical engineering and computer science at Case Western Reserve and co-author of the study. "While we can't say that the EPA rules have no impact--as, for example, discouraging the building of new coal power plants because of the expectation that tougher air-quality rules will clear the courts--the data say the EPA rules have not been the driving force."

Hong, co-director of the Electricity Systems Research Lab at Case Western Reserve, and Walter Culver, a founding member of the Great Lakes Energy Institute Advisory Board at the university, say the data show that shale-gas competition is what's been hurting coal as of today. They expect that, as wind and solar sources of electricity continue to improve, they will be tough competitors to coal in the not-distant future.

The authors examined data available from the U.S. Energy Information Administration, academia, specialized energy consultants, and Wall Street analysts and publically available information of the electric utilities and gas industry--in some cases down to the profit and loss statements.

"If you're a power plant operator and you see gas supply is continuing to increase and natural gas can do the job cheaper--by a lot--the decision to switch from coal is pretty easy," Culver said.

The long-term outlook

"As we look toward the future, we see no natural mechanisms that will permit coal to recover," Culver said.

Gas supply continues to grow. Starting in 2009, gas production each year has exceeded U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) annual projections. And the proved gas reserves are outpacing production exponentially, the researchers note. Lastly, pipelines out of Appalachia--where the cheapest and most abundant shale gas is found--are expected next year to increase access to gas in that region by 55 percent above recent production.

There is a valid concern that the supply of natural gas will be limited by a recent debilitating drop in prices that has arisen from over-supply, Culver said. In fact, one driller per month has gone bankrupt in 2015 and early 2016.

But after reviewing the profit-and-loss statements of gas drillers, the researchers believe that a point of price stability exists where both the drillers can be profitable enough to keep drilling and the price to power plants--particularly for gas from the Marcellus and Utica shale deposits in Appalachia--will still be far lower than coal.

Some analysts suggest that exports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) will drive down the domestic supply and raise prices. But Hong and Culver say shipping costs, to Asian markets in particular and well-positioned regional competitors, are likely to prevent U.S. LNG from competing easily internationally. That would leave a strong supply here at attractive prices.

Beyond gas price, state regulations and generator technologies have been and will continue to be factors in the loss of coal production, they conclude.

Since 2010, the cost of utility-scale solar power has declined 68 percent and onshore wind 51 percent, making them close to, or already competitive with coal, the researchers say.

Policies in three-quarters of America's states encourage the addition of wind and solar as replacements for coal. As costs have dropped, some states are pushing a faster switch to those renewables.

Because wind and solar fail to provide constant power, fill-in energy sources are needed. Until large-scale batteries or other electricity-storage technologies become more practical, gas is the logical choice over coal to augment the grid, Culver says. Gas plants can be fired up and turned down faster than coal plants, thus lowering costs to consumers and producing less pollution.

Forthcoming EPA air-quality regulations may further disadvantage coal, Hong and Culver say. Burning natural gas, for instance, produces no mercury emissions, half the carbon dioxide of coal and 80 percent less sulfur.

</div>
<div></div>

Study: EPA is not to blame for decline in coal production

Cheap shale gas produced by fracking has driven the decline...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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