Marine,Biodiversity,Above,Healthy,Coral,Reef,In,The,Coral,Triangle

When thinking about fossils, we often picture dinosaurs. But reefs can also hold an ancient history. Tiny fish bones and shark scales also become fossils in these habitats, quietly preserving the story of ancient oceans.



A striking study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (<a href="https://stri.si.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">STRI</a>) has now revealed how humans disrupted Caribbean reefs in the past.



Scientists analyzed fossilized coral reefs from Panama’s Bocas del Toro and the Dominican Republic. These reefs, exposed and well-preserved, date back 7,000 years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-changed-reef-fish-communities">Humans changed reef fish communities </h2>



The researchers compared the fossilized reefs with nearby living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-hidden-hotspot-where-soft-corals-are-thriving/">reefs</a> to reveal how overfishing changed fish communities.



In the ancient reef sediments, the team found thousands of fossilized otoliths (fish ear bones) and dermal denticles (shark scales).



These fossils gave clues to species composition and size. The results show a massive shift in predator-prey dynamics, unlike anything seen before.



One of the most alarming findings was a 75% drop in shark numbers. These top predators once played a key role in maintaining reef balance. As their numbers fell, populations of prey fish surged. They doubled in abundance and increased 17% in size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-predator-release-effect">The predator release effect</h2>



The study offers hard evidence for the “predator release effect.” Scientists had long predicted this outcome, but they lacked solid prehistoric data to prove it. 



Now, the fossils confirm what models once assumed: removing predators lets prey populations explode.



Meanwhile, fish targeted by humans, like larger groupers and snappers, became 22% smaller. This shrinking trend matches what we observe today. 



Overfishing seems to have pushed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> toward early maturity and smaller size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-fish-stay-the-same">Some fish stay the same</h2>



Remains from tiny cryptobenthic reef fishes, which live in coral crevices, told a different story. Their size and abundance remained unchanged over thousands of years.



Despite fishing and upheaval above them, these reef dwellers stayed stable. Their resilience surprised the researchers.



“The stability of these fish shows remarkable resistance to external pressures,” noted the researchers. Even as top predators vanished and fishing intensified, these hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">species</a> kept going, unchanged.



To measure these shifts, the scientists examined 807 shark denticles and 5,724 otoliths. They also studied coral branches for bite marks left by damselfish. 



Fossil and modern samples showed that damselfish now bite more often - likely because they face fewer predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-bones-reveal-big-reef-changes">Fish bones reveal big reef changes</h2>



Otoliths grow in layers like tree rings. This allows scientists to estimate the age and size of fish at time of death. By comparing fossil otoliths with modern ones, researchers could track size changes across millennia.



Dermal denticles, the scale-like structures on shark skin, helped identify shark presence. These tiny features tell a big story: as shark numbers decreased, populations of prey species expanded.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/coral-reefs_fish-otoliths_credit-Erin-Dillon_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/coral-reefs_fish-otoliths_credit-Erin-Dillon_1s.webp" alt="Fish otoliths — the calcium carbonate structures found in fishes' inner ears — from human harvested fish, prey fish (those eaten by predatory fish) and reef-sheltered fish (also known as cryptobentic fish) found in 7000 year-old fossilized Caribbean reefs from Panama and the Dominican Republic. Credit: Erin Dillon" class="wp-image-1976075"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fish otoliths - the calcium carbonate structures found in fishes' inner ears - from human harvested fish, prey fish (those eaten by predatory fish) and reef-sheltered fish (also known as cryptobentic fish) found in 7000 year-old fossilized Caribbean reefs from Panama and the Dominican Republic. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Erin Dillon</figcaption></figure>



Bite marks from damselfish also gave insights. These aggressive little fish defend territories and leave distinct marks. More bites today means more damselfish - again pointing to the effects of predator loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-reef-fish-history-with-fossils">Tracing reef fish history with fossils</h2>



This fossil evidence gives scientists a rare and valuable baseline. It shows how Caribbean reef fish communities looked before human fishing began to alter their structure. 



Without such deep-time context, conservation efforts often rely on incomplete or recent data that miss the full picture of ecological change.



Now, researchers and reef managers can clearly see which parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reef</a> ecosystem shifted due to human influence - and which components, like tiny reef-sheltered fish, remained stable across millennia.



“This study demonstrates the power of the fossil record for future conservation,” the researchers stated. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impacts-of-human-activity">Long-term impacts of human activity</h2>



These 7,000-year-old fossils give us a clearer view of the long-term impacts of human activity on reef food webs, fish sizes, and predator-prey dynamics.



They also help identify which reef species and relationships are most at risk from continued pressure. 



By looking back in time through the fossil record, scientists gain crucial insight to guide better decisions in reef conservation, fishing policies, and biodiversity management today.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/-m5uNoWKIgo
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Discovering and studying prehistoric coral reefs on dry land.</figcaption></figure>



The research was a collaboration among top institutions including the&nbsp;Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), the&nbsp;Marine Science Institute at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas, Austin</a>, and the&nbsp;Center for Biodiversity Outcomes at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503986122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fossils reveal how humans completely changed Caribbean reef ecosystems

When thinking about fossils, we often picture dinosaurs. But reefs can also hold an ancient history. Tiny fish bones and shark scales also become fossils in these habitats, quietly preserving the story of ancient oceans. A striking study from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) has now revealed how humans disrupted Caribbean reefs in the past. Scientists analyzed fossilized coral reefs from Panama’s Bocas del Toro and the Dominican Republic. These reefs, exposed and well-preserved, date back 7,000 years. Humans changed reef fish communities The researchers compared...

When will electric cars become a practical choice for ordinary people? The question hangs in the air at the Paris auto show, where Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz and General Motors are showing off electrics they hope are the on-ramp to a profitable future.
The raft of new vehicles lends buzz to electrics. But earlier over-optimistic predictions have also bred skepticism.
Volkswagen compared its I.D. electric compact to its historic Beetle and mainstay Golf models and said it was the leading edge of 30 new electric models it plans to put out by 2025.
Daimler AG CEO Dieter Zetsche looked more Silicon Valley than Stuttgart when he donned faded jeans and sneakers to tout the Mercedes-Benz EQ, a battery powered crossover SUV concept. The vehicle is meant to illustrate the company's longer term strategy that connects electric cars with other new technology such as autonomous driving and vehicle sharing.
Zetsche said the company aimed for 10 electric vehicles by 2025, making up 15-25 percent of global sales - a bold prediction he immediately tempered by saying that was based on "continued development of infrastructure and customer preferences."
General Motors Co.'s European division Opel is showing off the Ampera-e, a rebadged version of the Chevrolet Bolt. The car's range is rated at 238 miles on a full charge, a significant leap. The Bolt goes on sale this year in the U.S., but it's hardly cheap at the manufacturer's suggested retail price of $37,495 for a five-seat hatchback. That's not counting the tax break of up to $7,500 the federal government offers to encourage the growth of zero-emissions vehicles.
For now, the limited range and higher costs mean battery-powered vehicles have little attraction for regular folks trying to get the most for their money. They remain largely a niche market, often for people enthusiastic about new technology or the environment, and with the extra disposable income to act on that. Palo Alto, California-based Tesla has won attention with rising sales of electrics to well-heeled customers - but doesn't turn profits yet.
Subsidies and incentives have been key in government efforts to help electric vehicles get a foothold. That has been the case in urban areas like the greater Oslo area in Norway, around San Jose, California, and in Shanghai, China.
In the short run, at least, they help burnish companies' image as technologically advanced and environmentally friendly. Volkswagen is struggling to recover from a scandal over diesel cars rigged to cheat on emissions tests.
But companies are also laying the groundwork for the day when the cost of electric falls to, or below, that of internal combustion. It's a day that some analysts think is only a few years off. When that happens, sales could hit a tipping point - a moment carmakers want to be ready for.
The arrival of such an "E-Day" could be accelerated by increasing government regulation mandating lower average emissions and higher mileage. Electrics in the product lineup would help carmakers meet new, lower European Union limits on greenhouse gas emissions blamed by scientists for global warming that go into effect in 2021. In the U.S., nine states have followed California in adopting a requirement that 15 percent of new vehicles sales be zero-emission vehicles by 2025.
Electrics have good acceleration, and fewer moving parts to wear out. And imagine: never stopping for gas, ever again.
But there are a host of other factors to consider: the price of gas; the price of electricity; charging times; battery costs; the ease with which you can find places to charge up.
Accordingly, predictions for the future of electric vehicles are uncertain. In 2008, presidential candidate Barack Obama called for a million electric vehicles on the road in the U.S. by 2015, and repeated the call in 2011. At year end, there were 506,000 plug-in electrics - either battery only or plug-in hybrids - on the road, out of 114 million total. Plug-in hybrids start on battery power, then use a small internal combustion engine to general electricity and extend the vehicle's range.
Pure hybrids like Toyota's Prius can't be plugged in and rely on the engine alone to charge the battery.
Bloomberg New Energy Finance issued a report in August that predicted electrics would match internal combustion vehicles in ownership costs in 2022, assuming oil prices of $50-$70 per barrel and battery prices of $125 per kilowatt hour. That key cost has fallen from $1,000 per kilowatt hour in 2010 to around $350 per kilowatt hour today - faster than many expected.
Thomas Turrentine, director of the Plug-In Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Research Center at the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California, Davis, says electrics will reach price parity "after 2020" but still might need some incentives to win over consumers.
He said the key will be the usual motive: "Once there's profit, you will see the car companies rush in and make more investments" in production.
Brett Smith, an expert on alternative power trains at the Center for Automotive Research in Ann Arbor, Michigan, cautions that automakers will still face a lot of consumer hurdles to overcome.
Those include battery durability, places to charge up, charging times, and reluctance to commit hard-earned cash to unfamiliar technology: "In the mid-term, it offers uncertainty. Most buyers are going to trust what they know, and most buyers don't know electrics," he said.
Renault-Nissan CEO Carlos Ghosn says consumer choices can change, if the technology does. The company makes the Leaf battery-only electric.
"It's like with a smartphone, in the beginning you had eight hours charging for 30 minutes of discussion," Ghosn told The Associated Press. "Today it is the reverse."
"You need time for technology to do its job."
---
Angela Charlton contributed to this report.
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When will carbon-free electric cars be practical for everyone?

When will electric cars become a practical choice for ordinary...

Global warming could rapidly threaten grasses including staple foods such as wheat and rice that provide half of all the calories consumed by humans, say scientists.

A new study looking ahead to 2070 found that climate change was occurring thousands of times faster than the ability of grasses to adapt.

While the research cannot predict what might happen to world food supplies as a result, the authors warn of "troubling implications".

Grass is food, both for many species of animals and humans.

Wheat, rice, maize, rye, barley and sorghum are all edible grasses that yield nutritious grains. In many parts of the world and throughout history, wheat or rice famines have led to widespread starvation.

The new research, published in the Royal Society journal Biology Letters, looked at the ability of 236 grass species to adapt to new climatic niches - the local environments on which they depend for survival.

Faced with rapid climate change, species wedded to a particular niche can survive if they move to another region where conditions are more suitable, or evolve to fit in with their altered surroundings.

The scientists found that the predicted rate of climate change was typically 5000 times faster than the estimated speed at which grasses could adapt to new niches.

Moving to more favourable geographical locations was not an option for a lot of grass species because of limits to their seed dispersal and obstacles such as mountains or human settlements.

The researchers, led by Dr John Wiens, from the University of Arizona in the US, wrote: "We show that past rates of climatic niche change in grasses are much slower than rates of future projected climate change, suggesting that extinctions might occur in many species and/or local populations.

"This has several troubling implications, for both global biodiversity and human welfare.

"Grasses are an important food source for humans (especially rice, wheat and corn). Evolutionary adaptation seems particularly unlikely for domesticated species ... and even local declines may be devastating for some human populations."

--

<a href="http://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank">University of Arizona</a>

Global warming is happening too quickly for food crops to adapt

Global warming could rapidly threaten grasses including staple foods such...

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change appears likely to enter into force with India announcing that it has ratified the agreement and the EU signaling it may ratify within the next few days, officials said.
The two ratifications would mean countries accounting for nearly 65 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions will have approved the accord, which is set to take effect 30 days after 55 countries accounting for 55 percent of emissions deposit their ratification instruments with the U.N.
Currently 61 countries accounting for nearly 48 percent of emissions have joined the accord.
"We've heard that the European Union may deposit its ratification instruments with us much sooner than we had expected, which would be tremendous news because that would put us over the top in terms of the percentage of emissions, because we're already there in terms of the number of countries needed," U.N. Spokesman Stephane Dujarric said Wednesday.
If that were to happen before Oct. 7 the next U.N. conference on climate change set to take place in Marrakech would begin on Nov. 7 with the agreement already in force, something Dujarric said "would send a very strong signal to the rest of the world."
Indian officials, who declined to be identified because they were not authorized to speak with the press, said India, accounting for about 4.5 percent of emissions, ratified the agreement on Wednesday and planned to deposit the ratification instruments with the U.N. on Oct. 2, the anniversary of Mahatma Ghandi's birth.
Germany ratified the accord on Sept. 23 but EU rules require European countries, responsible for around 12 percent of emissions, to deposit their ratifications as a bloc when all 28 members have approved the deal.
Diplomats and media reports said the EU hoped to speed the process at a meeting later this week and finalize approval by Oct. 7.
The Paris Agreement asks both rich and poor countries to take action to curb the rise in global temperatures that is melting glaciers, raising sea levels and shifting rainfall patterns. It requires governments to present national plans to reduce emissions to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit).
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European Union set to ratify Paris Agreement on Climate Change

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change appears likely to enter...

In a city where smog routinely blankets the streets, a Dutch artist has offered an eccentric solution: a 7-meter (23-foot) metal structure that takes in smog and expels cleaner air.
Daan Roosegaarde's Smog Free Tower opened Thursday on a small, grassy lot in Beijing's famed 798 arts district. Comprised of 45 silver plates resembling partially open window blinds, the tower contains an air-purifying machine that runs continuously with a low hum.
"That is not noise!" Roosegaarde told a visitor standing next to the tower. "That is the beautiful sound of clean air moving toward you!"
There's hardly a more scarce resource than clean air in Beijing on a high-pollution day, particularly in wintertime when the region's coal-fired electrical plants are running at full capacity. The levels of dust and harmful particles in Beijing's air are among the highest in the world.
Government researchers have linked the pollution to higher rates of lung cancer and on particularly bad days, schools keep children inside during playtimes and many pedestrians don masks designed for hospitals or construction zones.
Roosegaarde, whose projects focus on connecting people with nature and energy, came up with the idea for the tower after a visit to Beijing three years ago during which he saw the view outside his window blocked by the thick gray haze.
"I couldn't even see the next street," he said. "That image changed me."


[caption id="attachment_87699" align="alignleft" width="150"]<img class="wp-image-87699 size-thumbnail" src="http://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/smog-free-tower-beijing-Daan-Roosegaarde_1big_ap-150x150.jpg" alt="Daan Roosegarrde with the Smog Free tower. Credit: AP" width="150" height="150" /> Daan Roosegarrde with the Smog Free tower. Credit: AP[/caption]
At his studio in the Netherlands, Roosegaarde and a team of designers began working on a project that would respond to Beijing's pollution and highlight the benefits of fighting it, in however limited a way. They raised more than $120,000 online to help pay for the tower by selling metal rings with a clear cube that includes a bit of black carbon from smog.
The tower began running in Beijing one week ahead of its formal unveiling. The tower will also be shown in other Chinese cities, including the central city of Hebei and the southern commercial center of Shenzhen.
Roosegaarde wants to eventually build more towers, perhaps with funding from the Chinese government, which has publicly made reducing pollution a priority.
He also said he hopes the tower will inspire creative thinking and innovation among people in China and other countries that are grappling with heavy pollution. He's planning to meet with inventors of projects like a bicycle that purifies air as it is pedaled.
"We shouldn't wait for the government to tell us what to do," he said. "I want to start a movement, a community, which does not accept pollution anymore. We should use the energy of creative thinking to create cities where ultimately in 10-15 years, these beauties are not necessary anymore."
The tower was unveiled on a relatively good day by Beijing standards, with a bright sky and a cool early fall breeze. Standing next to dignitaries with red roses pinned to their lapels, Roosegaarde used a remote control to raise part of the tower's panels into the air to show the machine inside.
Whether the air was actually cleaner was hard to say. An unscientific test using a handheld monitoring device throughout the day showed the air next to the tower was slightly cleaner than further away.
The tower did draw visitors walking through the district who stopped to stare at it and take pictures.
Ma Zhongqing, an information technology worker, said she was reminded of a larger version of the air purifiers many Beijing residents keep running in their homes during winter.
Ma and others were cautiously optimistic that it would make a difference, albeit a small one.
"It being exhibited here makes people feel that they need to pay attention to this kind of thing," Ma said. "But a lot of problems need to be solved while it's being put into use."
---
Associated Press videojournalist Thomas Suen and researcher Yu Bing contributed to this report.
---
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China hopes the Smog Free Tower will fix air pollution problem

In a city where smog routinely blankets the streets, a...

Group is suing ExxonMobil over climate change. ExxonMobil is being sued by a Boston-based environmental group that says the company has polluted the Mystic River and failed to consider the potential impacts of climate change.
The lawsuit filed in federal court on Thursday by Conservation Law Foundation accuses the petroleum company of violating the Federal Clean Water Act and other federal <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=environment&amp;cvid=9a854c87292845b288ea776360f88350&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">environmental</a> laws in operating its Everett, Massachusetts, fuel terminal.
The lawsuit alleges the company has ignored an "imminent" threat posed by rising sea levels, which could leave much of the<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/oakland-officials-want-to-build-coal-transport-terminal/"> terminal</a> underwater in the event of a hurricane or other major storm.
The foundation announced its intent to file suit in May. Group is suing ExxonMobil over climate change
The company did not immediately respond to a request for comment but has previously said the Everett facility was in compliance with federal rules. Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.
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Group is suing ExxonMobil over climate change

Group is suing ExxonMobil over climate change. ExxonMobil is being...

A new study of lead pollution in the North Atlantic provides strong evidence that leaded fuel emissions have declined over the past few decades.

For the first time in around 40 years, scientists have detected lead from natural sources in samples from this ocean. In the intervening period, the proportion of lead in the ocean from manmade sources, most importantly leaded petrol emissions, had been so high that it was not possible to detect any lead from natural sources.

Trace metals such as lead are continuously recycled on land, in the ocean and in the atmosphere, and are important barometers that help scientists to understand planetary processes. Scientists are particularly keen to monitor levels of lead from natural sources, such as windblown dust, and lead from manmade sources, such as burning coal, to determine the impact of industrialisation on the planet and levels of pollution.

A team of scientists from Imperial College London, and their collaborators, analysed the chemistry of seawater samples collected from across the tropical North Atlantic in 2010 and 2011. The aim of the study, published in the journal Nature Communications, was to determine variations in the proportions of natural and manmade lead in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean.

The scientists found that up to 50 per cent of the lead was from natural sources, which they say reflects a decrease in the amount of lead pollution emitted from combustion engines. They caution however that this finding is confined to a specific area of the ocean, which is expected to receive particularly high inputs of natural lead, and that continuing pollution from sources such as coal-burning and smelting processes are still overwhelming natural lead elsewhere in the Atlantic ocean.

Dr Luke Bridgestock, who carried out the study while doing his PhD in the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial, said: “Lead pollution has never been a hazard to the health of ocean ecosystems, as it occurs in very dilute amounts in seawater. However, the proportion of lead from human activities and naturally occurring sources in the surface of our oceans reflects the extent of environmental lead pollution. That is why today’s find is encouraging. It demonstrates how effective policies to phase out leaded petrol have been.”

“The big catch though is that lead pollution from other sources is still high, overall remaining dominant over naturally occurring lead in the oceans.”

Over the last 100 years, the North Atlantic Ocean has been heavily affected by high levels of lead pollution from the industrialised regions of North America and Europe. The primary source of this pollution has been lead emitted from car engines and other combustion engines. Starting in the 1970s, countries have introduced a raft of policies to eliminate lead additives from combustion engines. However, previous scientific expeditions since the 1970s have failed to detect any naturally occurring lead in the oceans because it was still completely masked by high levels of lead from manmade sources.

The ocean samples in the new study were collected over a radius spanning thousands of kilometres in an area between the continents of Africa and the Americas. They were collected in 2010 and 2011 as part of the GEOTRACES programs - an ongoing international effort to study the cycling of various trace metals in the ocean.

Dr Tina Van de Flierdt, co-author of the study from the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial, added: “This is the first time since similar studies began in the late 1970s that natural lead in the ocean has been at an observable level. However, this finding is confined to this particular region of the North Atlantic and pollutant lead from industrial processes is still dominant in this ocean and elsewhere. For example, lead pollution in the Indian ocean has increased in recent times due to the economic development of countries surrounding it.”

The researchers used a technique that analyses the isotopic composition of lead in the seawater samples. This helped them to determine the origin of the lead. Different isotopes of lead are produced by different radioactive decay processes, which are like fingerprints, enabling scientists to infer information about lead’s journey through different environmental systems.

Analysing the lead isotope composition of seawater samples showed the team that vast plumes of windblown dust from Saharan Africa deposited naturally occurring lead in the tropical North Atlantic. It is also being transported into the ocean via the Amazon River in South America. Lead from manmade sources was being delivered by westerly winds from industrialised North America and by easterly winds from Europe and North Africa.

Pollutants inadvertently act like dyes, enabling individual “parcels” of water to be traced as they move around the world’s oceans. The next step will see the team using this principle in their research to track lead pollution as it is transported deep into the ocean. In doing so, they will be able to learn valuable information about ocean circulation patterns.

---

<a href="http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Imperial College London</a>

Leaded fuel emissions in the ocean are declining

A new study of lead pollution in the North Atlantic...

Volkswagen Emission Testing

Volkswagen CEO Matthias Mueller says the company is cooperating with U.S. authorities and hopes to reach a settlement on a fine with the Justice Department for equipping diesel vehicles to cheat on emissions tests.
Mueller said the company admits it "made a big mistake" and that "we have worked on a very cooperative basis with the authorities in Germany, Europe, and the U.S. and we hope, especially in the United States, the results of the investigation are pronounced by the Justice Department with a settlement and a corresponding fine."
Mueller told The Associated Press on Wednesday that possible fines reported in different news media were "pure speculation."
Asked if a fine could threaten the company's credit rating or financial solidity, he said Volkswagen was a "financially very robust organziation" but added that "I can only answer that question when I know the amount of the fine."
Volkswagen has admitted wrongdoing in equipping cars with software to evade emissions testing and has agreed on a $15 billion civil settlement with environmental authorities, state governments and vehicle owners in a federal court in San Francisco. The deal, which still has to be approved by a federal judge, requires the company to spend up to $10 billion buying back or fixing about 475,000 2-liter diesel vehicles involved in the scandal and paying owners an additional $5,100 to $10,000 each.
One Volkswagen engineer has pleaded guilty to federal criminal charges in the United States and agreed to cooperate with federal authorities in the investigation. Volkswagen has brought in a law firm to conduct its own probe over the emissions scandal. Mueller said the Jones Day law firm had put 13 million documents in a database made available to the Department of Justice and that "they will certainly identify the people who were involved."
Volkswagen showed off a new electric drive small car at the Paris auto show, part of the company's effort to emphasize low-emissions vehicles and its embracing of new technology and ways of doing business, including autonomous driving, car-sharing and ride-sharing.
---
AP Business Writer Tom Krisher contributed to this report from Detroit.
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Volkswagen working on a settlement with US over emissions scandal

Volkswagen CEO Matthias Mueller says the company is cooperating with...

A state environmental review board voted Wednesday to allow Wyoming's first major coal mine in decades to proceed despite the objections of another coal company.

Amid competition from natural gas and tougher environmental regulations, coal mines tend to be cutting back production or even shutting down - not opening anew. Kentucky-based Ramaco's relatively small Brook Mine would buck that trend but has faced opposition from another company and a ranch.

The Wyoming Environmental Quality Council voted unanimously to allow Ramaco to go ahead despite the Big Horn Coal Company's objections.

Ramaco hopes to begin digging a few miles north of Sheridan by early next year, CEO Randall Atkins said.

"We're very pleased that the EQC agreed with our conclusion there were not any substantial damages to the surface owners," Atkins said. "We look forward to moving expeditiously with the balance of the permitting process and to beginning our project."

Ramaco and the Padlock Ranch resolved their differences Tuesday on confidential terms, he said.

Earlier this month, Ramaco announced plans for two new mines in Virginia and West Virginia that would produce metallurgical coal for the steel industry. Essentially all coal mined in Wyoming is not metallurgical but thermal coal, the type burned in power plants to generate electricity.

In Wyoming and other Western states, mineral rights can be owned separately from the surface of the ground. That sometimes leads to conflicts between the oil and gas industry and landowners who don't want petroleum development on their property.

Such conflicts are rare for Wyoming's well-established coal industry, however, which produces about 40 percent of the nation's coal.

Within the boundaries of the Brook Mine area, Padlock Ranch owns 1,400 acres and Big Horn Mining Company 1,100 acres of surface land. The mine would keep cattle away from the Tongue River and likely destroy a livestock watering system, attorneys for the ranch told the commission in a March 16 letter.

The mine would restrict access and use of facilities, including a bridge and rail spur, should Big Horn Mining Company also decide to mine coal in the area, an attorney for the company wrote the commission April 20.

Ultimately council members weren't convinced the mine would substantially prohibit Big Horn Coal's operations, as would have been required to deny the order in lieu of consent.

"I do not believe there will be an impact, substantial or otherwise, to Big Horn Coal," council member Tim Flitner said.

Michael Klein, Big Horn Coal vice president and general counsel, didn't immediately return a message Wednesday seeking comment on the vote.

A lawsuit Ramaco filed against Big Horn Coal in state court remains pending. Proceedings were suspended pending the outcome of the council's decision. Atkins said he planned to confer with Ramaco attorneys about what happens next with the lawsuit.

---

Follow Mead Gruver at <a href="https://twitter.com/meadgruver" target="_blank">https://twitter.com/meadgruver</a>

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Wyoming votes to allow the first new coal mine in decades

A state environmental review board voted Wednesday to allow Wyoming's...

Dense arrays of seismometers are letting scientists get a clearer look at a giant scar that underlies the American Midwest

When Doug Wiens approached Minnesota farmers to ask permission to install a seismometer on their land, he often got a puzzled look. “You could tell they were thinking ‘Why are you putting a seismometer here?,’ ” said Wiens, professor of earth and planetary sciences in Arts &amp; Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis. “‘We don’t have earthquakes and we don’t have volcanoes. Do you know something we don’t?’ ”

Actually, he did. Deep beneath the fertile flat farmland, there is a huge scar in the Earth called the Midcontinent Rift. This ancient and hidden feature bears silent witness to a time when the core of what would become North America nearly ripped apart. If the U-shaped rip had gone to completion, the land between its arms — including at least half of what is now called the Midwest — would have pulled away from North America, leaving a great ocean behind.

Weisen Shen, a postdoctoral research associate with Wiens, will be presenting seismic images of the rift at the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America (GSA) Sept. 25-28. The images were made by analyzing data from Earthscope, a National Science Foundation (NSF) program that deployed thousands of seismic instruments across America in the past 10 years.

What is that thing?

The Midcontinent Rift was discovered by geophysicists who noticed that gravity was stronger in some parts of the upper Midwest than in others. In the 1950s and 1960s, they mapped the gravity and magnetic anomalies with airborne sensors. Shen is contributing to a session at the GSA dedicated to Bill Heinze, a geophysicist who helped discover and map the Midcontinent Rift.

But understanding of the rift then stalled until 2003, when the NSF funded Earthscope, a program whose mission is to use North America as a natural laboratory to gain insight into how the Earth operates.

As part of Earthscope, the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) installed a network of 400 seismometers, called the USArray, that rolled across the United States from west to east, gathering data at each location for two years before moving on. USArray was installed on the West Coast beginning in 2004, and had advanced to the Midwest by 2010.

Earthscope also made available a pool of seismometers, called the flexible array, for more focused field experiments. A consortium of universities, including Washington University in St. Louis, installed 83 of these stations along and across the rift in 2011, creating a dense array called SPREE.

A telescope looking down

[caption id="attachment_87633" align="alignleft" width="150"]<img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-87633" src="http://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/seismometers-US-map_1big_WUSTL-150x150.jpg" alt="The USArray consisted of 400 seismometers" width="150" height="150" /> The USArray consisted of 400 seismometers[/caption]

Seismologists had never before been able to blanket the landscape with seismometers in this way, and so the USArray has stimulated many innovations in the manipulation of the seismic data to extract information about Earth’s crust and upper mantle.

Seismic interpretation is a thorny version of what is called an inverse problem. If the Earth’s interior were of uniform composition, seismic waves would travel in straight lines. But instead, underground structures or differences in temperature and density refract and reflect them. The problem is to figure out mathematically which obstructions could have produced the wave arrivals that the seismometers recorded.

It’s a bit like trying to figure out the shape of an island in a pond by throwing a pebble into the lake and recording the ripples arriving at the shore.

The data wizard on the Washington University team is Shen, who has devised new techniques for combining many types of seismological data to create sharper images of Earth’s interior.

The farmers in Minnesota have a point when they wonder what an “earthquake sensor” could detect in an area where there are no earthquakes. The answer is that the seismometers record distant earthquakes, such as those on the Pacific Ring of Fire on the opposite side of the planet, and ambient noise, caused by activity such as powerful storms slamming into the Jersey Shore.

Shen has seasoned the mix with several other measurements that can be extracted from the seismic record as well. By inverting all of these data functions simultaneously within a Bayesian statistical framework, he is able to obtain much clearer images of Earth’s interior than one type of data alone would produce, together with estimates of the probability that the images are correct.

Not just a scar, a keloid scar

[caption id="attachment_87631" align="alignleft" width="150"]<img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-87631" src="http://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/seismometers-spree-array_1big_WUSTL-150x150.png" alt="The SPREE array" width="150" height="150" /> The SPREE array[/caption]

What have the scientists learned about the rift?

“When you pull apart a continent, like a piece of taffy, it starts to stretch and to thin,” said Michael Wysession, professor of earth and planetary sciences and a member of the SPREE team. “And as it sags, the dip fills with low-density sediment.

“So if you go over a rift with a gravity sensor, you expect to find a negative gravity anomaly. Mass should be missing. But that’s not what happened with the Midcontinent Rift. Instead of being thinner than the surrounding crust, it is thicker.

“We know that lava comes out at rifts,” Wysession said. “The East African rift zone, for example, includes a number of active and dormant volcanoes, such as Mount Kilimanjaro. But the Midcontinent Rift was flooded with lava, and as it sank under the weight of the cooling basaltic rock, even more lava flowed into the depression.

“A huge volume of lava erupted here,” Wysession said. “It was perhaps the largest outflowing of lava in our planet’s history. And then, after the eruptions ended, the area was compressed by mountain building event to its east, thickening the scar by squeezing it horizontally.

Shen published images of the rift made with USArray data in the Journal of Geophysical Research 2013. But at that time, he had only sparse coverage in the rift’s vicinity. At the 2016 GSA meeting he will present images made with both USArray and SPREE data (especially many more “receiver functions,” a type of seismic data that is particularly sensitive to seismic boundaries) that show what lies beneath the rift more clearly.

Miles beneath the Earth’s surface, there is a seismic boundary called the Mohorovičić discontinuity, or Moho. At the Moho, seismic waves hit higher density material and suddenly accelerate. But beneath the rift, Shen said, the Moho is blurred rather than sharp. “Its structure has been destroyed,” he said.

He also sees evidence of something called magmatic underplating. “We think magma might have trapped, or stalled out, at the Moho or within the crust during its rise to the surface,” he said. This might explain why the Moho is so disrupted, although Shen can think of alternative explanations and expects there to be lively discussions at the GSA.

He compares images of the Midcontinent Rift made with the SPREE array to images of the Rio Grande rift made with a similar seismic array called La Ristra. The La Ristra images show that the Rio Grande rift is thinner than the surrounding crust, not thicker. The Moho is clear and rises rather than sinks under the rift.

“I think we’re looking at different stages of rifting,” Shen said. The Rio Grande Rift is still active, still opening, but the Midcontinent Rift is already dead and has been squeezed shut.

Wiens commented that the tremendous outpouring of magma at the Midcontinent Rift might also have disrupted its structure, making it look different from other rifts.

“My goal,” Shen said, “is to provide basic seismic models of interesting tectonic regions like this one for geologists, geochemists and scientists from other disciplines to use — to help them interpret their results and also help the public to better understand the story of the land they live on.”

Rural Minnesota is already onboard. “Some landowners were quite interested in what we were doing,” Wiens said. “We got into one or two small town newspapers. ‘So-and-so now has a seismometer on his farm,’ the headline would read.”

---

<a href="http://www.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>

Midcontinent rift: Scientists find a giant scar under the American Midwest

Dense arrays of seismometers are letting scientists get a clearer...

Many people are concerned about conservation of the planet’s cute and cuddlies. But in a world of global climate change, sometimes we must prioritize species survival and which species we can and should save from extinction. Dr. Alycia Stigall and her colleagues are leading the charge in studies to help us make those determinations by looking at the fossil record. She will report their findings at the Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America on 25 September in Denver, Colorado, USA.

As a paleontologist, Stigall has looked at seven different events in deep time that experienced dramatic shifts in the biodiversity (number of species) and the size of species populations from as recent as 15,000 to 30,000 years ago (Beringia dispersals) to 485 to 460 million years ago (Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event).

So how does biodiversity generate on Earth? Stigall and her colleagues (all of whom are former students of hers) have found evidence for a cycle that explains how species diversify and disappear over time. Some animals living on a continent are generalists (able to thrive in multiple environments and/or from multiple resources). These animals spread out across the continent so that they reduce the amount of competition for resources. Over time, the continent breaks apart into numerous islands and the animals are isolated from each other. This leads to speciation (formation of new species) because the animals are all competing for limited resources and thus specialize into ecological niches in order to coexist peacefully. This speciation increases biodiversity, but if the environment changes, those specialized species are less likely to survive. So as those islands begin to form a new continent, the generalists invade the ecological niches of specialists and drive speciation, and thus biodiversity, down.

This information is critical for understanding modern conservation efforts because it tells us that specialist species are going to need a lot more help surviving global climate change than generalist species. As we undergo this changing environment, invasive species will become more of a common occurrence. Stigall explains that while this pattern keeps occurring throughout time, there are always going to be idiosyncrasies associated with the multitude of different drivers in each of those geological events. And when you start taking human interferences into account, predictive modeling becomes even more difficult.

“Places that are tropical and stable, regions that have similar climate year-round, will likely be impacted the most by invasive species,” Stigall explains. “Data sets for modern species are usually limited in terms of the number of species and years available when talking about biodiversity, so hopefully we can use the fossil record to expand our knowledge and use the past to make informed decisions about the future.”

--

<a href="http://www.geosociety.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Geological Society of America</a>

Scientists are using fossils to predict future species survival

Many people are concerned about conservation of the planet’s cute...

Sea surface temperatures dipped dramatically during a period from 7 million to 5.4 million years ago, a time of massive global ecological change.

Around 7 million years ago, landscapes and ecosystems across the world began changing dramatically. Subtropical regions dried out and the Sahara Desert formed in Africa. Rain forests receded and were replaced by the vast savannas and grasslands that persist today in North and South America, Africa and Asia.

Up to now, these events have generally been explained by separate tectonic events — the uplift of mountain ranges or the alteration of ocean basins — causing discrete and local changes in climate. But in a new study, a team of researchers has shown that these environmental changes coincided with a previously undocumented period of global cooling, which was likely driven by a sharp reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

The research, led by a Brown University geologist and published in Nature Geoscience, is based on a newly developed record of global sea surface temperatures spanning the past 12 million years. The record reveals a distinct period of cooler sea surface temperatures spanning 7 million to 5.4 million years ago, the end of the Miocene epoch. The global climate during the Miocene is known to have been much warmer than the present. During the cool period detected in this study, sea surface temperatures dropped to near modern levels.

“This is the first time the late Miocene has been put in a context of global sea surface temperatures, and we were surprised to see the amount of cooling we found,” said Timothy Herbert, professor in the Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown, who led the study. “In light of this temperature change, the paleobiological observations from this period start to make a lot more sense.”

The new record of sea surface temperatures was derived from ocean sediment sampled at 17 different sites around the world. The sediment preserves the remains of a plankton species that varies cellular chemistry with temperature. By measuring amounts of those temperature-sensitive molecules, scientists can recreate temperature through time.

The late Miocene cool period was detected at every site sampled, in both hemispheres and in every ocean basin on the planet. The cooling was strongest toward the poles and more moderate toward the equator. That pattern, Herbert says, suggests a global atmospheric cause for the temperature decline. The most likely suspect is carbon dioxide (CO2).

“The hemispheric symmetry and the fact that cooling is much greater at the high latitudes — these are the fingerprints of CO2-related temperature change,” Herbert said. “We haven’t proven that it was a decline in CO2 because we’re not measuring it directly, but we’re making a circumstantial case for a reduction in CO2.”

The cooler temperatures would likely have played a role in the drying of the subtropics in the late Miocene, the researchers say. “A cooler world — particularly a cooler ocean — would have decreased moisture in the atmosphere,” Herbert said. “The hydrological cycle basically slows down with cooling.”

And if the cooling was indeed driven by a reduction in atmospheric CO2, it could explain a critical shift in global vegetation that occurred during the late Miocene: the transition from forests to grassland and savanna in the subtropical regions of North and South America, Asia and Africa. These ecosystems are still present today. In Africa, these are the habitats associated with the evolution of our early human ancestors.

Many of the grassy plant species that began thriving during this period are “C4” plants. These species use a slightly different photosynthetic pathway than trees and other plants. The C4 pathway is more efficient in low CO2 environments. “It could be that that if CO2 declined, these C4 species were favored,” Herbert said. “So we can associate that shift in vegetation with the same thing that we suspect was driving the late Miocene cooling.”

It isn’t clear at this point what might have driven a reduction in CO2 during this period, Herbert says. It could be that there were large-scale geological changes occurring at this time that affected the carbon cycle. Herbert’s lab is looking into that possibility now.

But what is clear is that there was a significant global shift in global temperatures during the late Miocene.

“The prevailing view was that this wasn’t a particularly exciting time in terms of global climate,” Herbert said. “It turns out to be more interesting than people thought.”

---

<a href="http://www.brown.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brown University</a>

Study: Global cooling led to modern ecosystems

Sea surface temperatures dipped dramatically during a period from 7...

A recent spate of whale entanglements off of New England could help shape future regulations to preserve the endangered animals, federal authorities said Tuesday.
A North Atlantic right whale was found dead about 12 miles off the Maine coast over the weekend, entangled in fishing gear. Two other right whales were also found entangled recently. One of them was reported alive, and researchers plan to reassess its condition.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said the 45-ton animal's death near Maine was still being investigated, including whether the gear can be traced back to its owner.
The agency is using gear recovered from the entanglements to see if the fishermen who owned them were in compliance with fishing regulations, NOAA Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Program Coordinator David Gouveia said. Gouveia said the investigation could also inform future regulations.
"We're on par for the course with the averages for the year for entanglements," he said. "Overall, if you look at entanglements of all large whale species, we're a little bit above our average."
Entanglement is a key cause of death among North Atlantic right whales, which are among the rarest whales.
The population of the whales has crept up from about 300 in 1992 to about 500 in 2010, but a recent study in the journal Frontiers in Marine Science stated that the number of baby right whales born every year has steeply declined since. The study's author, Scott Kraus, said the whales' population suffers even when the animals survive entanglements in fishing gear because of negative effects to reproduction.
It's too early to say what form any new regulations could possibly look like. Patrice McCarron, executive director of the Maine Lobstermen's Association, said it's unlikely that the rope that entangled the Maine whale was from a Maine lobsterman because of how thick it was.
"It's not the kind of gear that we typically see in Maine," she said.
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Call to action as whale entanglements increase

A recent spate of whale entanglements off of New England...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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