Climate change reshapes where people live, altering both the desire and the ability to move. When heat waves, droughts, and floods strike, not everyone responds the same way. A study in&nbsp;Nature Communications&nbsp;shows that age and education strongly influence who migrates and who remains.



The research reveals a complex story: extreme weather pushes some groups to leave while trapping others in place. This challenges the image of mass waves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-wins-in-2025-came-from-unexpected-places/">climate</a> refugees often evoked in debates.



Study lead author Hélène Benveniste is an assistant professor of environmental social sciences at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



"Weather extremes can both incentivize people to move away and increase the number of people who don't have the ability to migrate," said Professor Benveniste.



"Our research shows that migration in response to weather, just like migration decisions in general, is highly dependent upon demographic characteristics."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-migration-patterns">Climate and migration patterns</h2>



Earlier research often gave mixed signals on whether women, men, or people with different education levels were more likely to migrate under extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-will-climate-change-hit-hardest-global-index-reveals-vulnerability/">weather</a>. 



By analyzing detailed global migration records, Benveniste and colleagues showed that these contradictions arise because responses vary sharply across demographics and local climates.



The team examined more than 125,000 cross-border cases and nearly half a million within-country moves. They categorized migrants by age, education, and sex, and then connected these groups to weather records like temperature and soil moisture. 



This approach revealed that migration is best understood not by how many move, but by who does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapped-and-cannot-migrate">Trapped and cannot migrate</h2>



The new model predicted migration up to 12 times better than previous approaches. Yet weather alone explained only a small fraction of migration, since economics, politics, and social ties also weigh heavily.



Still, striking demographic patterns emerged. Children under 15 were less likely to migrate following extreme heat. Older adults with little education, however, were more likely to leave, while highly educated adults showed little change.



"Our results indicate that many among those most likely to suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">climate</a> change impacts will not be able to get out of harm's way," noted the researchers. 



This creates a "double penalty," where people with the fewest resources both struggle to adapt locally and lose migration as an option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-climate-and-migration">Local climate and migration</h2>



Climate zones shape how weather influences moves within countries. In tropical regions, hotter days increased migration among educated adults but had little effect on those with less schooling. 



In arid regions, dry spells spurred moves especially among the least educated, while heavy rains or flooding also triggered departures.



The analysis highlights how vulnerability interacts with opportunity. Those reliant on agriculture, often with little education, may feel a strong push to leave during drought, yet lack the means to relocate across borders. Instead, they may move to nearby towns or cities when conditions deteriorate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-migrates-and-who-doesn-t">Who migrates and who doesn't </h2>



The study emphasizes that climate change will not necessarily unleash waves of migrants. Instead, it will reshape the composition of those who move. 



Projections suggest that by the end of the century, older adults with little education may migrate across borders at higher rates, while the youngest and least educated will migrate less.



This shift means that population averages mask the real story: dramatic differences between groups cancel each other out. Policies that only consider total migration numbers risk overlooking those most affected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responses-to-long-term-changes">Responses to long-term changes</h2>



The researchers caution that responses to long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-elite-responsible-for-majority-of-global-climate-warming/">climate</a> change may differ from reactions to short-term weather. 



Communities may adapt with new crops or technologies, reducing the need to move. Yet if conditions outpace these adaptations, migration pressures could rise again.



Destination conditions also matter. High heat in receiving countries can discourage movement for some groups, while wetter conditions may attract others, especially educated adults. 



Household factors, such as whether people have children, further influence decisions, with parents often less likely to move.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-climate-shocks">Preparing for future climate shocks</h2>



Policymakers often prepare for large waves of climate refugees. But the evidence points to a subtler reality: climate change will alter who is able to move, while many vulnerable groups remain trapped.



"We hope that policymakers use these results as a basis to more squarely address the needs of different demographic groups," Benveniste said. "We need to answer the needs not just of the people who move, but also those who are moving less."



The science is clear: climate-driven migration is less about numbers and more about people. Understanding who moves, who stays, and why is key to preparing for a warmer, less predictable world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62969-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Climate shocks: Who migrates and who stays behind?

Climate change reshapes where people live, altering both the desire and the ability to move. When heat waves, droughts, and floods strike, not everyone responds the same way. A study in&nbsp;Nature Communications&nbsp;shows that age and education strongly influence who migrates and who remains. The research reveals a complex story: extreme weather pushes some groups to leave while trapping others in place. This challenges the image of mass waves of climate refugees often evoked in debates. Study lead author Hélène Benveniste is an assistant professor of environmental social...

Swiss skiers aren’t pleased this winter. While some parts of the Alps are covered in gloriously soft and powdery snow, their side of the mountains remains largely bare. This is because December 2016 was the driest in history. In fact, it was the most dry since record-keeping started more than 150 years ago. Ski buffs did not have a very merry Christmas, as there was very little snow for the third year in a row. 

Unfortunately, this picture isn’t likely to change in the years to come. Researchers have published a study in the journal<a href="http://www.the-cryosphere.net"> The Cryosphere</a> suggesting that man-made <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/kamchatka-peninsula-captured/">snow</a> may be the key to ski resort survival in the future. 

The discouraging news comes from those who know snow best: scientists with the Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) and the<a href="http://cryos.epfl.ch"> Cryos Laboratory École Polytechnique Fédérale</a> in Switzerland. They predict that a whopping 70% of the snow cover on the Alps could disappear within the next 100 years.

They also predict that the Alpine winter season will become shorter. This means less time for people to ski, snowboard, and snowmobile their way through the beautiful Alps. In fact, if current trends continue, the season could start anywhere from half a month to an entire month later than it currently does. 

Some of this disaster may possibly be averted, however, if humans can maintain global temperatures and ensure that they don’t rise beyond 2°C. In that case, the snow cover reduction could be limited to 30% by 2100. 

"The Alpine snow cover will recede anyway, but our future emissions control by how much,” explained Christoph Marty, the lead author of the study. 

“The majority of the climate models used project slightly increasing winter precipitation towards the end of the century. However, since temperatures are clearly increasing simultaneously we may experience increasing rainfall and not snow fall," Marty said. "We hope our results convincingly show that even increasing winter precipitation cannot compensate for the effect of the strongly increasing temperatures.”

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 
Source: Christoph Marty,<a href="http://cryos.epfl.ch"> Cryos Laboratory École Polytechnique Fédérale</a>

Do you like to ski? You won’t like this story.

Swiss skiers aren’t pleased this winter. While some parts of...

Breathe in and breathe out. Don’t take those breaths for granted – all of the life that’s walking around on this planet needs <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/low-oxygen-levels-delayed-evolution/">oxygen</a> in order to survive. It’s not just land-dwelling creatures, though. Sea life also needs oxygen, and scientists are increasingly worried that global warming may be affecting ocean oxygen levels.

We know, we know... Another bit of bad news about how global warming threatens to ruin everything. How does it even affect ocean oxygen levels, anyway? 

First, warmer surface waters absorb less oxygen than cold water. Second, warm water toys with the stratification of the ocean. This refers to the way that ocean waters have layers – with certain ones being warmer or colder and some having a more oxygen-rich supply than others. 

When the top layer of ocean water is incredibly warm, it weakens the circulation cycle of water to the surface, which means that less oxygen is transported into deep sea waters where it’s badly needed. All of this adds up to a total decrease in global oceanic oxygen inventory – and it’s due to global warming. 

The study, published in the journal<a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html"> Nature</a>, is bad news for marine life. Dunke Schmidtko of<a href="http://www.geomar.de/en/"> GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a> explained how less oxygen will possibly affect the fish population. 

“Since large fishes in particular avoid or do not survive in areas with low oxygen content, these changes can have far-reaching biological consequences, he said. A drop in the number of fish will also have an impact on the fishing industry and the economy of coastal areas. 

The team used measurements from the entire ocean to note how oxygen levels have dropped during the period of time included in their investigation. Although the researchers believe that natural processes may have caused the decrease, the results point to an overall increase in concentrations of carbon dioxide and higher temperatures. 

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: Dunke Schmidtko,<a href="http://www.geomar.de/en/"> GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a>

Unbelievable! Global warming is trashing ocean oxygen levels

Breathe in and breathe out. Don’t take those breaths for...

Ancient ice melts were caused by increases in air temperatures, right?

Don’t feel bad if you were nodding enthusiastically at the question, but you’re way off. Scientists have been confused for decades on how giant sheets of <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/camp-century-buried-waste/">ice</a> managed to melt during some of the coldest times during the last Ice Age. It defies all logic – but scientists think they may have uncovered the secret behind this Ice Age paradox. 

A research team including Professor Jeremy Bassis of the<a href="https://umich.edu/"> University of Michigan</a> looked at the behavior of the Laurentide ice sheet that used to cover a large part of North America. During the times when it would melt and splinter, weather temperatures were at their coldest, so scientists dug in to discover what else was going on.

What they found is that warm ocean water likely caused the ancient ice melts – not warm air, as was previously thought. While this provides answers to the strange behavior of the Laurentide, it also gives us a peek into our own future. 

"We've shown that we don't really need atmospheric warming to trigger large-scale disintegration events if the ocean warms up and starts tickling the edges of the ice sheets," said Bassis. "It is possible that modern-day glaciers, not just the parts that are floating but the parts that are just touching the ocean, are more sensitive to ocean warming than we previously thought."

This is important because scientists believe the same type of warming is at work on the Greenland ice sheet, as well as Antarctica. Researchers believe that as the Antarctic ice melts, it may raise sea levels by three feet or more. 

"What we are showing is that the models we have of this process seem to work for Greenland, as well as in the past so we should be able to more confidently predict sea level rise,” Bassis said.

The team’s findings were published in the journal<a href="http://www.nature.com/nature"> Nature</a>. 

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 
Source: Jeremy Bassis,<a href="https://umich.edu/"> University of Michigan</a>

Think ancient ice melts were caused by warm air? Wrong.

Ancient ice melts were caused by increases in air temperatures,...

Sounding like something out of a horror movie, scientists have been studying a phenomenon they’ve nicknamed the blob – an unusually warm patch of seawater that appeared off of the west coast of the U.S. in late 2014 and 2015. 

A boon to bathers, perhaps, warm patches of water can cause various effects on the marine environment. This particular pattern, however, affected the air quality in areas around Washington, Oregon, western Utah and northern California. 

How does warm <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-waves-cause-great-dying/">ocean</a> water affect air quality? It can increase ozone levels. As “the blob” created warmer temperatures, low cloud cover, and a much calmer air mass, conditions were perfect for ozone levels to skyrocket. Ozone originates from pollution caused by cars and factories, as well as phenomenon such as forest fires. When light from the sun hits the pollutant molecules, they turn into ozone. 

This would all be nothing more than an interesting scientific observation if not for the fact that ozone is hazardous to humans. That’s why the federal government regulates it and tries to reduce overall ozone levels. 

Initially, Dan Jaffe, the lead author of the blob study and a professor at<a href="https://www.uwb.edu"> University of Washington Bothell</a> thought something had gone wrong with the team’s readings. 

"At first we were like 'Whoa, maybe we made a mistake.' We looked at our sensors to see if we made an error in the calibration. But we couldn't find any mistakes," he said. "Then I looked at other ozone data from around the Pacific Northwest, and everybody was high that year.”

Since 2004, the team has been measuring ozone levels from the top of Mount Bachelor in central Oregon. The measurements in June 2105 were 12 parts per billion higher than average. At the same time, levels in Sacramento and Salt Lake City shot 70 parts per billion higher than the levels allowed by the<a href="https://www.epa.gov/"> Environmental Protection Agency</a>. 

Jaffe hopes that the study, published in<a href="http://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1944-8007/"> Geophysical Research Letters</a>, will help scientists better understand the connection between warming temperatures and air quality. 

--

By Dawn Henderson, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer  
Source: Dan Jaffe,<a href="https://www.uwb.edu"> University of Washington Bothell</a>

Oh, no! The blob attacks the U.S. west coast – sort of

Sounding like something out of a horror movie, scientists have...

Lonely Polar Bear takes desperate measures to find a mate as female polar bear travels to a new zoo. 

Not long ago, we brought you an article about how a Dutch zoo had started a program they were calling<a href="http://www.earth.com/image/tinder-orangutans-primates-date/"> “Tinder for orangutans”</a> using tablet technology to make love matches between male and female primates at the facility.

It seems that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/philadelphia-zoo-mourns-oldest-aardvark/">zookeepers</a> have to double as matchmakers for various animal species. Often lacking opposable thumbs or useful typing skills, animals can’t simply take out a personals ad in order to find that special someone. 

(Imagine if they could, though: “Female seeking strong, aggressive male who likes to lead the pack. I enjoy taking short, back-and-forth walks in my enclosure and being fed exquisite dinners of leaves and grubs. When not pacing, I adore batting around the giant rubber ball provided for playtime. Would you like to join me in making a scratchy nest in the grass?”)

Ahem! But they can’t – and sometimes caretakers have to get creative in helping the furry ones find love.

This was the case at the<a href="https://www.toledozoo.org"> Toledo Zoo</a> in Ohio. They’ve actually shipped one of their bears off to a zoo near Chicago in hopes that she’ll make a connection with one of the male bears there.

The female is a 21-year-old polar bear named Nan. Her love vacation will send her to meet Hudson, a handsome male bear who resides at the<a href="https://www.czs.org/Brookfield-ZOO/Home"> Brookfield Zoo</a>. They won’t exactly be allowed to meet each other in person at first, however. They’ll enjoy small talk and spending time with one another in neighboring enclosures that are separated by a fence. 

<a href="https://www.aza.org">The Association of Zoos and Aquariums</a> arranged the move through its polar bear species survival program. Nan was born in the wild, making her a genetically-important bear. An orphan, she was discovered near Barrow, Alaska, before spending 16 years at the Toledo Zoo. Let's hope this lonely polar bear finds the love she was looking for.

–

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Lonely Polar Bear makes an epic journey to find love

Lonely Polar Bear takes desperate measures to find a mate...

Today’s pattern of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-waste-converts-to-energy/">water</a> usage is one that’s largely governed by waste. People leave the tap running while they brush their teeth. For most Americans, the shower isn’t simply a place to get clean; they stay under the hot water each morning until they experience a virtual rebirth and feel ready for the day. Between cooking, drinking, cleaning, and bathing – it takes a lot to keep our water cycle running every day. 

This is particularly true in urban areas, home to 80% of the U.S. population. The need for energy, agricultural products, and clean drinking water keeps growing as populations continue to rise. Because of this, scientists are working to figure out how we can make better use of our urban water supply. 

Engineers with the<a href="https://www.nsf.gov"> National Science Foundation</a> have created a fascinating design – an illustration of what they’re calling the urban water cycle "of our dreams.” They believe that systems like this could make an efficient engineered water cycle a reality. 

The process involves purification using membranes that would filter water removed from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. This could be used as drinking water.

Another source of drinking water would be desalinated water. The ocean is a huge body of water – why not use it to quench our thirsts?

Healthy crops also need clean, desalinated water, so proper irrigation would also play a part in the system. The water for irrigation would need to be monitored for contaminants, high salt levels, or anything that may disrupt crop production. 

Treatment of wastewater provides another eco-friendly potential. We know it sounds gross, but it really is possible to remove microbes and recycle wastewater for water, as well as clean energy. 

The engineers also include aquaponics in the picture. This combines acquacultue (raising fish) with hydroponics (raising plants in soil-free conditions). 

Reuse of materials like greywater and biosolids top off the water cycle utopia imagined by the team. Greywater from baths, sinks, and washing machines could be reused for flushing toilets and irrigating lawns. Meanwhile, solid waste is ideal for fertilizer and creating clean energy. 

This vision could change the way we interact with our water, treating it like the precious commodity it truly is. 

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source:<a href="https://www.nsf.gov"> National Science Foundation</a>

&nbsp;

NSF scientists create the urban water cycle "of our dreams”

Today’s pattern of water usage is one that’s largely governed...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/archaeological-lost-kingdom-dark-ages/">Archaeologists</a> often uncover evidence of life on earth millions of years ago. A scientist has just returned from an Iranian desert with a discovery that ups the ancient ante: material from an ancient meteorite that originated some 4.5 billion years ago. 

Yes – that’s billion with a “b.” 

Viktor Grokhovsky and three other scientists from<a href="https://urfu.ru/en/"> Ural Federal University</a> made their find in the Lut desert, also known as Dasht-e-Lut. They believe that the incredibly dry conditions there helped preserve the matter, allowing them to bring it in for closer examination. Half of the material collected will stay in Iran for testing, while the other half was shipped to a Russian test lab. 

The material discovered weighed roughly 29 pounds and consisted of 70 samples, 10 of which are believed to be from the same kind of ancient meteorite. 

The meteorite is reminiscent of one that crashed near the Russian city of Chelyabinsk in 2013. The rock that fell during that incident is the largest one to have hurtled to earth in over 100 years. It caused a huge explosion near Chelyabinsk – creating a shock wave as powerful as 20 atomic bombs. Grokhovsky was part of the team that recovered fragments of that meteorite, as well. 

“In order to determine the age of the found fragments, the scientist should consider when a fragment was formed in space, when it split from its parent body and how much time has it spent on Earth,” Grokhovsky told<a href="https://sputniknews.com"> Sputnik News</a>. 

“'Based on the isotopes it will be possible to talk about cosmogonist age, that is, how long the outer body of the meteorite was in the form of an asteroid.”

To provide some perspective on the meteorite’s age, 4.5 billion years ago would place the rock’s origin sometime around the time our entire universe was born. 

--
By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Russian scientists discover ancient meteorite material in Iran

Archaeologists often uncover evidence of life on earth millions of...

Scientists find a way to reuse our water waste AND make thermal <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/waste-to-energy-plants/">energy</a>. We waste gallons of water each day, every time we run the sink, do laundry, wash dishes, or take a bath or shower. That water, known as greywater, could potentially be reused, but most homes and buildings don’t have the capability of recycling it.

This is even more of a concern in places where water is a precious commodity. Recycling greywater would mean that fresh, clean water could be used for drinking and cooking, rather than lost after being used for washing.

Architect Maria Paz Gutierrez (a mentor at the<a href="http://www.berkeley.edu"> University of California, Berkeley</a>) hopes to change all of that. Working with Slav Hermanowicz, an environmental engineer, and bioengineer Luke Lee, she’s found a way to put greywater to work. It’s job? Making thermal energy.

While greywater can’t be recycled as drinking water – it’s not clean enough for that – it can be reused for things like flushing toilets and washing laundry. The system created by Gutierrez would send that greywater cycling back through the system to be used a second time, but it would also be used to make thermal energy that would lower electricity bills.

"This is the future of sustainable building systems--synergistic optimization processes that are win-win from the local to the global scales," said Gutierrez. "The end user benefits because they're using less water and paying less for electricity or gas; the community benefits because it has less water to treat; the environment benefits because we're not going to be contaminating aquifers. That's the fundamental difference between this design and other building systems.”

The team’s research was supported by the<a href="https://www.nsf.gov"> National Science Foundation</a>. While the technology is currently in its infancy, Gutierrez says it could be available for commercial purposes within 10 years. Her goal is to bring the price point down to one that would be realistic in areas where water is scarce. We are looking forward to a future where our water waste is converted into something useful.

–

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

&nbsp;

Amazing scientists turn our water waste into energy

Scientists find a way to reuse our water waste AND make...

Imagine: you’re deep within the Brazilian <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/gibbon-new-species-found/">rainforest</a> when you discover huge, geometric trenches. Some of the huge shapes – squares and circles – measure as large as a city block. The trenches themselves are up to 13 feet deep and as much as 12 yards wide. These earthworks are a reality, and archaeologists believe they were built by ancient people around 2,000 years ago. They also found broken ceramics near the entrance to the shapes, but are unsure why the materials were left there. 

The discovery of the ancient geometric earthworks has unearthed a stunning realization: rainforest areas that were previously thought to be undisturbed by humans until 15th century explorers arrived from Europe were actually subject to manipulation by the ancient people who built these glyphs – as well as those who came before them. 

“A lot of people have the idea that the Amazon forests are pristine forests, never touched by humans, and that’s obviously not the case,” said Jennifer Watling, an archaeologist the <a href="http://www5.usp.br/english/?lang=en">University of São Paulo</a>, Brazil, told the<a href="http://www.nytimes.com"> New York Times</a>. 

Researchers have found evidence of sustainable farming practices carried out thousands of years before the trenches were constructed.

They did this by carefully examining the environmental history of two of the areas in the Amazon rain forest in which glyphs are located. By analyzing soil samples, scientists were able to put together a story of ancient vegetation, as well as burnings that took place to make openings in the forest. Researchers believe that ancient forest dwellers may have planted maize or squash. 

Somewhat like methods now known as agroforestry, the ancient people of the Amazon took care not to burn or clear-cut large swaths of land. Instead, they used sustainable farming at its best. Watling says that the biodiversity that exists in the Amazon today is due to the practices that were started all those many years ago and continued by indigenous groups even today.

--
By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How ancient people changed the face of the rainforest

Imagine: you’re deep within the Brazilian rainforest when you discover...

Climatologists and conservationists have sounded the alarm about the potential impact of rising sea levels. Now, they’re adding another item to the list of things we stand to lose if the sea moves in and overtakes areas along the coast: our salt marshes. 

Salt marshes are areas along the coast that are frequently flooded as the tide ebbs and flows, leaving saltwater that’s home to a diversity of marine life. Shellfish, crustaceans, and many different species of seabirds depend on salt marshes for safety and survival. 

As <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sea-level-shift/">sea levels</a> rise, those salt marshes could be completely submerged. This is according to scientists working with the federal government. They say that of the eight of the coastal salt marshes in the U.S., four will disappear in 350 years if the current rate of sea level rise continues. 

When the marshes disappear, so will the species that depend on them for their food and habitat. Among these species is the Ridgeway’s rail, a rare bird that lives in the salt marshes south of the Los Angeles area.  

Neil Ganju, the lead author of the salt marsh study, said that the loss of this bird species is a concrete indication of what we stand to lose if conditions don’t change. 

“That’s something that's happening right in front of our eyes — an endangered bird that doesn't have anywhere to nest anymore,” he said. 

The research group, whose findings were published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>, used remote sensing techniques and aerial photography to record the nation’s marshes to get an idea of current conditions. They looked at how much of each marsh was covered in plants versus how much was submerged by water.

In addition to loss of marine species, coastal communities will be affected when they lose the erosion protection afforded by the salt marshes. Researchers hope that the study can be used by land managers and conservationists to create a strategy to save the salt marshes from rising sea levels. 

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rising sea levels will kill off salt marshes, scientists warn

Climatologists and conservationists have sounded the alarm about the potential...

When protesters try to prevent a construction project from moving forward, they employ all sorts of creative methods. They gather in huge crowds to chant, sing, and shout down developers. They unfurl huge banners to get their message out. Sometimes they even chain or handcuff themselves to construction equipment to bring operations to a screeching halt. Now, critics of a high-pressure Ohio gas pipeline slated to be constructed across the northern half of the state are receiving some unexpected help from the animal world. It may be that giant bulldozers and big money are no match for a tiny, furry bat that dwells in the area. 

The northern long-eared bat lives in caves and trees throughout the route that has been proposed for the NEXUS pipeline. The developers of the NEXUS – Spectra Energy and DTE Energy – were successfully able to argue against pipeline opponents’ suggestions that the project should be rerouted through less populated areas that don’t bring it near homes and businesses. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission shot those arguments down, saying that the current proposed pipeline route doesn’t pose any environmental problems.

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wild-boars-vampire-bats-rabies-oh/">bats</a>, however, create a new problem for developers, as these tiny creatures are classified as a threatened species. Their status prevents construction crews from chopping down trees in the bats’ habitat area between April 1 and September 30. 

This could create a huge delay for the NEXUS project, as it’s scheduled to be completed and begin delivering gas later this year. 

John Medina, a resident of Medina County, is on the forefront of the fight to keep the pipeline from being constructed along the current route. He and other property owners worry about the potential danger of having a pipeline with explosive natural gas running so close to their backyards and businesses. 

They hope that the bats will throw a serious wrench in the planned Ohio gas pipeline. 

"Time is our friend and their foe,” Medina told the<a href="https://www.ap.org/en-us/"> Associated Press</a>. 

--

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image: AP/<a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/62bd407ff5144afb85a219dece58b5b2">Tony Dejak</a>

Ohio gas pipeline may be halted by a tiny bat species

When protesters try to prevent a construction project from moving...

APTOPIX Damaged Dam

Evacuations ordered as officials fear Oroville Dam collapse. Twelve years ago, officials were warned that the Oroville Dam wasn’t in good shape. They rejected those concerns. Now, nearly 200,000 people have been evacuated from Butte, Sutter, and Yuba counties amid growing fears that the dam could collapse, putting neighborhoods under 100 feet of water. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/relentless-rain-california-nevada-west/">California National Guard</a> is on standby, waiting to be deployed as residents lined up to leave the area on Sunday. Traffic was bumper-to-bumper, and people were frightened and furious.

Gas station manager Raj Gill was told by his manager to evacuate, but chose to stay put and help evacuating residents gas up. 

“You can't even move,” he told the<a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html"> Daily Mail</a>. “I'm trying to get out of here too. I'm worried about the flooding. I've seen the pictures - that's a lot of water.”

It would indeed be a lot of water. Although officials have activated an emergency spillway not put into use for almost 50 years, that may not be enough. A 170 x 250-foot hole on the concrete lip of the dam’s secondary spillway has been exacerbated by flooding from recent storms. Engineers dropped rocks into the hole in order to temporarily plug the water flow.

However, with more bad weather on the way, officials worry that the weakened area of the dam could fail entirely.

Although water is no longer pouring over the damaged area, the evacuation orders are still in place while law enforcement and engineers work to figure out the best course of action. 

At a news conference, Butte County Sheriff Kory Honea updated residents on the situation. 

“There is [sic] still a lot of unknowns,” he said. “We need to continue to lower the lake levels and we need to give the Department of Water Resources time to fully evaluate the situation so we can make the decision to whether or not it is safe to repopulate the area.”

–

By Dawn Henderson,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image credit: <a href="https://www.ap.org/en-us/">Associated Press</a>

&nbsp;

Oroville Dam about to cause Californian catastrophe

Evacuations ordered as officials fear Oroville Dam collapse. Twelve years ago,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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—–

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

[sendtonews key="6SdlLLbt0t-1988946-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NTU...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

[sendtonews key="gRpsplpwpe-2251464-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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